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Saqaliba

Summary

Saqaliba (Arabic: صقالبة, romanized: ṣaqāliba, singular Arabic: صقلبي, romanized: ṣaqlabī)[nb 1] is a term used in medieval Arabic sources to refer to Slavs, and other peoples of Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe. The term originates from the Middle Greek slavos/sklavenos (Slav), which in Hispano-Arabic came to designate first Slavic slaves and then, similarly to the semantic development of the term in other West-European languages, foreign slaves in general.[2]

The Rus trading slaves with the Khazars: Trade in the East Slavic Camp by Sergei Ivanov (1913). Many saqaliba slaves came from Europe to the Abbasid Caliphate by the Volga trade route from Eastern Europe via the Khazars and the Caspian Sea.
Slavic and Black slaves in Córdoba; illustration from the Cantigas de Santa Maria
Iron restraints, 11th or 12th century, from Neu Niekohr

The word was often used to refer specifically to Slavic slaves, but it could also refer more broadly to Central, Southern, and Eastern Europeans traded by the Arab traders, as well as all European slaves in some Muslim regions like Spain and Portugal including those abducted from raids on Christian kingdoms of Spain and Portugal.[3][4] According to Sudár and B. Szabó, the word Saqaliba means 'forest dweller', regardless of ethnicity.[5]

There were several major routes for the trading of Slavic slaves into the Arab world: through Central Asia (Mongols, Tatars, Khazars, etc.) for the East Slavs; through the Balkans for the South Slavs; through Central and Western Europe for the West Slavs and to al-Andalus.[citation needed] The Volga trade route and other European routes, according to Ibrahim ibn Jakub (10th century), were serviced by Radanite Jewish merchants. (Compare Crimean–Nogai raids into East Slavic lands.) Theophanes mentions that the Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya I settled a whole army of 5,000 Slavic mercenaries in Syria in the 660s.[citation needed] After the battle of Sebastopolis in 692, Neboulos, archon of the Slavic corps in the Byzantine army, and 30,000 of his men were settled by the Umayyads in the region of Syria.[6][7]

In the Arab world, the Saqaliba served or were forced to serve in a multitude of ways: as servants, harem concubines, eunuchs, craftsmen, mercenaries, slave soldiers, and as Caliph's guards. In Iberia, Morocco, Damascus and Sicily, their military role may be compared with that of mamluks in the Ottoman Empire. In al-Andalus, Slavic eunuchs were so popular and widely distributed that they became synonymous with the term Saqāliba, though not all Saqaliba were eunuchs.[8][9] Some Saqāliba became rulers of taifas (principalities) in Iberia after the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba in 1031. For example, Mujāhid al-ʿĀmirī organized the Saqaliba in Dénia to rebel, seize control of the city, and establish the Taifa of Dénia (1010–1227), which extended its reach as far as the island of Majorca.

Saqaliba slave trade edit

The Volga trade route was established by the Varangians (Vikings) who settled in Northwestern Russia in the early 9th century. About 10 km (6 mi) south of the Volkhov River entry into Lake Ladoga, they established a settlement called Ladoga (Old Norse: Aldeigjuborg).[10] It connected Northern Europe and Northwestern Russia with the Caspian Sea, via the Volga River. The Rus used this route to trade with Muslim countries on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, sometimes penetrating as far as Baghdad. The route functioned concurrently with the Dnieper trade route, better known as the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, and lost its importance in the 11th century.

Saqaliba originally was used to denote Slavic people, however later it came to denote all European slaves in some Muslim regions like Spain including those abducted from raids on Christian kingdoms of Spain. The Franks started buying slaves from the Slavs and Avar Khaganate while Muslims also came across slaves in the form of mercenaries serving the Byzantine Empire and settlers in addition to among the Khazars. Most Slavic slaves were imported to the Muslim world through the border between Christian and Islamic kingdoms where castration centres were also located instead of the direct route. From there they were sent into Islamic Spain and other Muslim-ruled regions especially North Africa. The saqaliba gained popularity in Umayyad Spain especially as warriors. After the collapse of the Umayyads, they also came to rule over many of the taifas. With the conversion of Eastern Europe, the trade declined and there isn't much textual information on saqaliba after 11th century.[4]

Central Europe was the most favoured destination for importation of slaves alongside Central Asia and Bilad as-Sudan, though slaves from Northwestern Europe were also valued. This slave trade was controlled mostly by European slave traders. France and Venice were the routes used to send Slavic slaves to Muslim lands and Prague served as a major centre for castration of Slavic captives.[11][12] The Emirate of Bari also served as an important port for this trade.[13] Due to the Byzantine Empire and Venice blocking Arab merchants from European ports, they later started importing in slave from the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea.[14]

The Saqaliba were also imported as eunuchs and concubines to Muslim states.[15] The slavery of eunuchs in the Muslim world however was expensive and they thus were given as gifts by rulers. The Saqaliba eunuchs were prominent at the court of Aghlabids and later Fatimids who imported them from Spain and Portugal. The Fatimids also used other Saqaliba slaves for military purposes.[16]

Central Asian route edit

Slavery in the Muslim world provided a great market for the slaves captured by the vikings in Europe. Islamic law banned Muslims from enslaving other Muslims, and there was a big market for non-Muslim slaves on Islamic territory, where European slaves were referred to as saqaliba; these slaves were likely both Pagan Slavic, Finnic and Baltic Eastern Europeans [17] as well as Christian Western Europeans.[18]

People taken captive during the viking raids in Europe could be sold to Moorish Spain via the Dublin slave trade[19] or transported to Hedeby or Brännö in Scandinavia and from there via the Volga trade route to Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver dirham and silk, which have been found in Birka, Wollin and Dublin;[20] initially this trade route between Europe and the Abbasid Caliphate passed via the Khazar Kaghanate,[21] but from the early 10th-century onward it went via via Volga Bulgaria and from there by caravan to Khwarazm, to the Samanid slave market in Central Asia and finnally via Iran to the Abbasid Caliphate.[22] This was one of the major routes of the viking slave trade, alongside the Black Sea slave trade.[23]

The slave trade between the Vikings and the Muslims in Central Asia are known to have functioned from at least between 786 and 1009, as big quantities of silver coins from the Samanid Empire has been found in Scandinavia from these years, and people taken captive by the Vikings during their raids in Western Europe were likely sold in Islamic Central Asia, a slave trade which was so lucrative that it may have contributed to the Viking raids in Western Europe, which was used by the vikings as a slave supply source for their slave trade with the Muslim world.[24]

Balkan slave trade edit

The Balkan slave trade went by route from the Balkans via Venetian slave traders across the Adriatic and the Aegean Seas to the Islamic Middle East, from the 7th-century until the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans in the 15th-century.

Until the 6th- and 7th-century, the Balkans belonged to the Byzantine Empire, but was split by invasions of the Avars, Slavic tribes and other peoples. The new peoples populating the Balkans did not initially create any centralized state, which created a situation of permanent political instability on the Balkans. The various tribes conducted warfare against each other and took war captives. Due to the lack of a centralized state to negotiate for ransom, a habit formed in which war captives from the tribal wars on the Balkans were often sold to merchants from the Republic of Venice at the Adriatic coast. This developed in to a major slave trade in which Venetians bought captives from the Balkans whom they sold to the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic Middle East, which contributed to the growth of Venice as a major commercial empire by the 11th-century.[25]

The slaves bought by the Venetians at the Adriatic coast were transported by the Venetians to the slave market at the Aegean Islands were the majority continued to Egypt.[25]

Prague slave trade edit

In Western Europe, a major slave trade route went from Prague in Central Europe via France to Moorish Al-Andalus, which was both a destination for the slaves as well as center of slave trade to the rest of the Muslim world in the Middle East. Prague in the Duchy of Bohemia, which was a recently Christianized state in the early 10th-century, became a major center of the European slave trade in between the 9th- and the 11th-century.

The revenue from the Prague slave trade has been named as one of the economic foundations of the Bohemian state, financing the armies necessary to form a centralized state, which was not uncommon for the new Christian state in Eastern Europe.[26]

The Duchy of Bohemia was a state in a religious border zone, bordering to Pagan Slavic lands to the North, East and South East. In the Middle ages, religion was the determining factor on who was considered a legitimate target for enslavement. Christians prohibited Christians from enslaving other Christians, and Muslims prohibited Muslims from enslaving other Muslims; however both aproved of the enslavement of Pagans, who thereby became a lucrative target for slave traders.[27] Bohemia, being a religious border state close to Pagan lands, were thus in an ideal position to engage in slave trade with both Christians and Muslims, having access to a close supply of Pagan captives. The slaves were aquired through slave raids toward the Pagan Slavic lands North of Prague.

The Pagan Slavic tribes of Central and Eastern Europe were targeted for slavery by several actors in the frequent military expeditions and raids alongside their lands.[28] During the military campaigns of Charlemagne and his successor in the 9th-century, Pagan Slavs were captured and sold by the Christian Franks along the Danube-Elbe rivers, and by the mid 10th-century, Prague had became a big center of the slave trade in Slavic Pagans to al-Andalus via France.[29]

Prague was known in all Europe as a major slave trade center.[30] The armies of the Dukes of Bohemia captured Pagan Slavs from the East in expeditions to the lands later known as Poland to supply the slave market, which brought considerable profit to the Dukes.[31]

Traditionally, the slave traders aquiring the slaves in Prague and transporting them to the slave market of al-Andalus are said to have been dominated by the Jewish Radhanite merchants.[32]Pope Gelasius (492) permitted Jews to transport slaves from Gaul to Italy on the condition that they were Pagans, and by the time of Pope Gregory the Great (590-604), Jews were a dominating actor in the slave trade.[33] While Christians were not allowed to enslave Christians and Muslims not allowed to enslave Muslims,[32] Jewish slave traders had the advantage to move freely across religious borders, and supply Muslim slaves to the Christian world and Christian slaves to the Muslim world.[33] as well as Pagan slaves to both.[32] The Moorish Jewish merchant Ibrahim Ibn Jakub of Cordoba has described the trade in Slavic slaves as one of the goods exported from Prague to al-Andalus by Jewish and Muslim merchants.[34] According to Abraham ibn Ya'ḳub, Byzantine Jews regularly bought Pagan Slavs at the Prague slave market.[33]

The slaves were transported to Al-Andalus via France. While the church discouraged the sale of Christian slaves to Muslims, the salee of Pagans to Muslims was not met with such opposition. Louis the Fair granted his permission to Jewish merchants to traffick slaves through his Kingdom provided they were non-baptized Pagans.[33] The Jews of Verdun are noted to have bought slaves and sold them off to al-Andalus, and many Moorish Jews profited of the slave trade.[33] Both Christians and Muslims were prohibited from performing castrations, but there was no such ban for Jews, which made it possible for them to meet the great demand for eunuchs in the Muslim world.[32]

The most lucrative slave market was the Islamic slavery in Al-Andalus. The Arabic Caliphate of Córdoba referred to the forrests of Central and Eastern Europe, which came to function as a slave source supply, as the Bilad as-Saqaliba ("land of the slaves").[35]

In Islamic lands, the slave market had specific requirements. Female slaves were used for either domestic or sexual slavery as concubines. Male slaves were used for one of two categories: either for military slavery or as eunuchs. The latter category of male slaves were subjected to castration for the market. Many male slaves selected to be sold as eunuchs were subjected to castration in Verdun.[36]

White European slaves were viewed as luxury goods in Al-Andalus, where they could be sold for as much as 1,000 dinars, a substantial price.[37] The slaves were not always destined for the al-Andalus market; similar to Bohemia in Europe, al-Andalus was a religious border state for the Muslim world, and saqaliba slaves were exported from there further to the Muslim world in the Middle East.

The saqaliba slave trade from Prague to al-Andalus via France lost its religious legitimacy when the Pagan Slavs of the North started to gradually adopt Christianity from the late 10th-century, which made them of bounds for Christian Bohemia to enslave and sell to Muslim al-Andalus. The Prague slave trade were not able to legitimately supply their slave pool after the Slavs gradually adopted Christianity from the late 10th-century onward.[38] Christian Europe did not aprove of Christian slaves, and as Europe adopted Christianity almost entirely by the 11th-century slavery died out in Western Europe North of the Alps in the 12th- and 13th-centuries.[39]

Other slave trade routes edit

During the Middle ages, Saracen pirates established themselwes in bases in France, the Baleares, Southern Italy and Sicily, from which they raided the coasts of the Christian Mediterranean and exported their prisoners as saqaliba slaves to the slave markets of the Muslim Middle East.[40]

The Aghlabids of Ifriqiya was a base for Saracen attacks along the Spanish East coast as well as against Southern Italy from the early 9th-century; they attacked Rome in 845, Comacchio in 875-876, Monte Cassino in 882-83, and established the Emirate of Bari (847–871), the Emirate of Sicily (831–1091) and a base in Garigliano (882-906), which became bases of slave trade.[41] During the warfare between Rome and the Byzantine Empire in Southern Italy in the 9th-century the Saracens made Southern Italy a supply source for a slave trade to Maghreb by the mid 9th-century; the Western Emperor Louis II complained in a letter to the Byzantine Emperor that the Byzantines in Naples guided the Saracens in their raids toward South Italy and aided them in their slave trade with Italians to North Africa, an accusation noted also by the Lombard Chronicler Erchempert.[42]

Moorish Saracen pirates from al-Andalus attacked Marseille and Arles and established a base in Camargue, Fraxinetum or La Garde-Freinet-Les Mautes (888-972), from which they made slave raids in to France;[41] the population fled in fear of the slave raids, which made it difficult for the Frankish to secure their Southern coast,[41] and the Saracens of Fraxinetum exported the Frankisk prisoners they captured as slaves to the slave market of the Muslim Middle East.[43]

The Saracens captured the Baleares in 903, and made slave raids also from this base toward the coasts of the Christian Mediterranean and Sicily.[41]

While the Saracen bases in France was eliminated in 972 and Italy in 1091, this did not prevent the Saracen piracy slave trade of the Mediterranean; both Almoravid dynasty (1040-1147) and the Almohad Caliphate (1121–1269) aproved of the slave raiding of Saracen pirates toward non-Muslim ships in Gibraltar and the Mediterranean for the purpose of slave raiding.[44]

Saqalabid dynasties edit

 
A map showing the extent of the Saqalabid alliance in 1018 with Sardinian and Corsican possessions
See also: Slavery in Al-Andalus

Valencia edit

The following list is derived from Bosworth 1996, p. 19.

  • Muhārak and Muẓaffar: 1010/11–1017/18[45]
    to Tortosa: 1017/18–1020/21
  • ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī ʿĀmir al-Manṣūr, son of Sanchuelo: 1020/21–1060
  • ʿAbd al-Malik ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Niẓām al-Dawla al-Muẓaffar, son of prec.: 1060–1065
    to the Dhuʾl-Nūnids: 1065–1075
  • Abū Bakr ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Manṣūr, brother of prec.: 1075–1085
  • ʿUthmān ibn Abī Bakr al-Qāḍī, son of prec.: 1085
    to the Dhuʾl-Nūnids

Dénia edit

The following list is derived from Bosworth 1996, p. 17, who calls them the Banū Mujāhid. Mujāhid was a member of Muḥammad ibn Abi ʿĀmir's household.[45]

Tortosa edit

  • Labib al-Fata al-Saqlabi (Valencia 1017–1019): c. 1009–bfr. 1039/40
  • Muqatil Sayf al-Milla: bfr. 1039/40–1053/4
  • Ya'la: 1053/4–1057/8
  • Nabil: 1057/8–1060

Almeria edit

  • 1012 Aflah.
  • 1014 Khayran. Slavic slave from Cordoba Caliph palace, who dedicated his rule to the development of Almería.
  • 1028 Zuhayr, also a former Slavic slave from Cordoba
  • 1038 Abu Bakr al-Ramimi
  • 1038 Abd al-Aziz al-Mansur, al-Mansur's grandson, King of Valencia

From 1038 to 1041 Almería belonged to the Taifa of Valencia.

Usage edit

  • Geographer Ibn Khordadbeh (840–880) claimed that the Bulgar ruling title was "King of the Saqāliba" prior to the mid 7th century, meaning that the ruler held "a reservoir of potential slaves".[46]
  • Traveller Ibn Fadlan (fl. 921–22) called the ruler of Volga Bulgaria the "King of the Saqaliba".[47]
  • Polymath Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (850–934) described three main centers of the Saqaliba: Kuyaba, Slawiya, and Artania.
  • Traveller Ibrahim ibn Yaqub (fl. 961–62) placed the Saqāliba, Slavs, west of Bulgaria and east of other Slavs, in a mountainous land, and described them as violent and aggressive.[48] It is believed that these were situated in the Western Balkans.

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ From Greek, Σκλάβοι (Sclavi) alternates with Σκλαβηγοι (Sclavini), came the Arabic Saqlab (plural Saqāliba) in the seventh century. The semantic shift to 'slave' is a later West European development.[1]

References edit

  1. ^ A. P. Vlasto; Vlasto (2 October 1970). The Entry of the Slavs Into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs. CUP Archive. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-521-07459-9.
  2. ^ Golden, P.B.; Bosworth, C.E.; Guichard, P.; Meouak, Mohamed (1995). "al- Ṣaḳāliba". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 8 (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 872. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0978.
  3. ^ Mishin 1998.
  4. ^ a b Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery saqaliba&f=false The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery: A-K ; Vol. II, L-Z, by Junius P. Rodriguez
  5. ^ Sudár Balázs, B. Szabó János. Dentumoger II. - Tanulmányok a korai magyar történelemből – Gyula népe - Madzsgarok a 10. századi muszlim földrajzi irodalomban (2022). ISBN 9789634163039 pp. 136
  6. ^ Treadgold, Warren T. (October 1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6.
  7. ^ Lilie, Ralph-Johannes. Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit: 1. Abteilung (641–867), Band 3: Leon (# 4271) – Placentius (# 6265). Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-016673-6.
  8. ^ The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery: A-K; Vol. II, L-Z, by Junius P. Rodriguez
  9. ^ Lev, Yaacov (1991). State and Society in Fatimid Egypt. BRILL. pp. 74, 77–78. ISBN 978-90-04-09344-7.
  10. ^ Brøndsted (1965), pp. 64–65
  11. ^ Charlemagne, Muhammad, and the Arab Roots of Capitalism by Gene W. Heck. Munich: Walter de Gruyter. 2009. p. 316. ISBN 978-3-406-58450-3.
  12. ^ Atlas of the Year 1000. Munich: Harvard University Press. 2009. p. 72. ISBN 978-3-406-58450-3.
  13. ^ Packard, Sidney Raymond (1973). 12th century Europe: an interpretive essay. p. 62.
  14. ^ Pargas, Damian Alan; Roşu, Felicia (7 December 2017). Critical Readings on Global Slavery (4 vols.). BRILL. pp. 653, 654. ISBN 978-90-04-34661-1.
  15. ^ Pulcini, Theodore; Laderman, Gary (1998). Exegesis as Polemical Discourse: Ibn Ḥazm on Jewish and Christian Scriptures. Scholars Press. ISBN 978-0-7885-0395-5.
  16. ^ Lev, Yaacov (1991). State and Society in Fatimid Egypt. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-09344-7.
  17. ^ Korpela, J. (2018). Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 33-35
  18. ^ The slave trade of European women to the Middle East and Asia from antiquity to the ninth century. by Kathryn Ann Hain. Department of History The University of Utah. December 2016. Copyright © Kathryn Ann Hain 2016. All Rights Reserved. https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ark:/87278/s6616pp7. p. 256-257
  19. ^ "The Slave Market of Dublin". 23 April 2013.
  20. ^ The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024. (1995). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 91
  21. ^ The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium. (2007). Nederländerna: Brill. p. 232
  22. ^ The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024. (1995). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 504
  23. ^ Pargas & Schiel, Damian A.; Juliane (2023). The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p. 126
  24. ^ The slave trade of European women to the Middle East and Asia from antiquity to the ninth century. by Kathryn Ann Hain. Department of History The University of Utah. December 2016. Copyright © Kathryn Ann Hain 2016. All Rights Reserved. https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ark:/87278/s6616pp7.
  25. ^ a b The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420. (2021). (n.p.): Cambridge University Press. 117-120
  26. ^ World History Encyclopedia [21 volumes]: [21 volumes] Alfred J. Andrea Ph.D. p. 199
  27. ^ Korpela, J. (2018). Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 242
  28. ^ World History Encyclopedia [21 volumes]: [21 volumes] Alfred J. Andrea Ph.D. p. 199
  29. ^ World History Encyclopedia [21 volumes]: [21 volumes] Alfred J. Andrea Ph.D. p. 199
  30. ^ World History Encyclopedia [21 volumes]: [21 volumes] Alfred J. Andrea Ph.D. p. 199
  31. ^ World History Encyclopedia [21 volumes]: [21 volumes] Alfred J. Andrea Ph.D. p. 199
  32. ^ a b c d Korpela, J. (2018). Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 92
  33. ^ a b c d e Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, pp. 99-101.
  34. ^ World History Encyclopedia [21 volumes]: [21 volumes] Alfred J. Andrea Ph.D. p. 199
  35. ^ Rollason, D. (2018). Early Medieval Europe 300–1050: A Guide for Studying and Teaching. Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis.
  36. ^ Korpela, J. (2018). Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 36
  37. ^ Korpela, J. (2018). Slaves from the North: Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Nederländerna: Brill. p. 37
  38. ^ World History Encyclopedia [21 volumes]: [21 volumes] Alfred J. Andrea Ph.D. p. 199
  39. ^ World History Encyclopedia [21 volumes]: [21 volumes] Alfred J. Andrea Ph.D. p. 199
  40. ^ The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420. (2021). (n.p.): Cambridge University Press. p. 34
  41. ^ a b c d The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages. (1986). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 408
  42. ^ The Heirs of the Roman West. (2009). Tyskland: De Gruyter. p. 113
  43. ^ Phillips, W. D. (1985). Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade. Storbritannien: Manchester University Press.
  44. ^ The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420. (2021). (n.p.): Cambridge University Press. p. 37
  45. ^ a b Seybold 1960: "the descendants (and clients) of al-Manṣūr ibn Abi ʿĀmir, in the first place his sons ... To the former clients of the house belong Muhārak and Muẓaffar ... and Mudjāhid al-ʿĀmiri"
  46. ^ Abraham Ascher; Tibor Halasi-Kun; Béla K. Király (1979). The mutual effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian worlds: the East European pattern. Brooklyn College Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-930888-00-8.
  47. ^ Michael Friederich (1994). Bamberger Zentralasienstudien. Schwarz. p. 236. ISBN 978-3-87997-235-7.
  48. ^ H. T. Norris (1993). Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society Between Europe and the Arab World. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-85065-167-3.

Sources edit

External links edit

  • Barry Hoberman, "Treasures of the North" Archived 2012-07-16 at the Wayback Machine
  • "Slavs in Muslim Spain"

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