Summary
A borg is a "giant extrachromosomal element with the potential to augment methane oxidation",[1] described by Basem Al-Shayeb and Jill Banfield. Borgs are long DNA sequences existing alongside the main chromosome[2] in the archaea Methanoperedens, in oxygen-starved environments such as deep mud.[3][4] Borgs were discovered by Professor Jill Banfield and her team in the soil of a wetland, an aquifer, a riverbed, and a deserted mercury mine in the states of California and Colorado.[1]
Borgs are considered to be a new form of "giant linear plasmids" or giant viruses rather than unknown DNA elements.[5][1][2] They co-occur within a species of archaea which likely hosts them and shares many of their genes. The archaeon's main chromosome is only three times larger, and their capacity for anaerobic oxidation of methane as well as other biological functions – such as production of proteins – may be augmented by borgs.[6][7][1]
Features edit
They were discovered in March 8 2020 by Jill and others. The structure of Borg genomes are conserved and are distinguished from the plasmids and chromosomes of Methanoperedens, as well as other archaeal genomes.[8] Borgs do not possess discernible proteins that are associated with plasmids or viruses, rRNA loci, origins of replication, or vital genes that are commonly found within minichromosomes, also known as megaplasmids, of archaea.[1] A sample of borg genomes have been found to measure between 0.66-0.92 Mbp long, which is beyond the genome length of archaea viruses currently known.[8] Instead, the size of Borg genomes are characteristic of eukaryote-specific double-stranded DNA viruses from the phylum Nucleocytoviricota, also known as nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDV), which can surpass 2.5 Mbp.[8][9] Tandem direct repeat sequences are prevalent throughout a Borg's genome, and long inverted repeats terminate the genome. This differs from the megaplasmids of some bacteria, which carry interspaced repeats and usually are not responsible for encoding necessary genes.[8]
Functions (Gene list) edit
Below are some of the reported genes that are encoded via Borg genomes:[1]
Note that not every Borg genome contains the same genes.
- Mobile or transposable element defense systems
- Anaerobic oxidation of Methane (AOM)
- Type III-A CRISPR-Cas system (No spacer acquisition machinery and primarily targets RNA)
- RPL11 - Ribosomal protein L11
- Glycosyltransferase
- DNA and RNA manipulation
- Transport genes
- Energy metabolism
- Cell surface proteins
- PEGA
- S-layer
- Membrane-associated proteins (unknown functions that possibly affect host's membrane properties)
- Nitrogen fixation (nifHDK operon)
- Polyhydroxyalkanoate synthesis (Carbon storage) - Possibly used for when resources are low
- Tellurium resistance proteins
- FtsZ (tabulin homolog)
- Proteins that favor Major Vault Proteins
- TCA cycle genes
- citrate synthase
- aconitase
- cfbB and cfbC
- Coenzyme F420:L-glutamate ligase - cofE
- Electron bifurcating complexes
- Tetrahydromethanopterin synthesis
- Ferredoxin proteins
- 5,6,7,8-tetrahydromethanopterin hydro-lyase (Fae) - Involved in formaldehyde detoxification
- Carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH)
- Plastocyanin
- Cupredoxins
- Multiheme cytochromes (MHC)
References edit
- ^ a b c d e f Al-Shayeb B, Schoelmerich MC, West-Roberts J, Valentin-Alvarado LE, Sachdeva R, Mullen S, et al. (10 July 2021). "Borgs are giant extrachromosomal elements with the potential to augment methane oxidation". bioRxiv: 2021.07.10.451761. doi:10.1101/2021.07.10.451761. S2CID 235812990. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
- ^ a b Rinke C (October 2022). "Mystery find of microbial DNA elements called Borgs". Nature. 610 (7933): 635–637. Bibcode:2022Natur.610..635R. doi:10.1038/d41586-022-02975-3. PMID 36261713. S2CID 253020155.
- ^ Pennisi E (15 July 2021). "Mysterious DNA sequences, known as 'Borgs,'recovered from California mud". Science.
- ^ Rayne E (2021-08-03). "Resistance is futile, because Star Trek's Borg are real and can assimilate DNA from microbes". SYFY WIRE. Retrieved 2021-08-05.
- ^ Cepelewicz J, Whitten A (21 July 2021). "Plasmid, Virus or Other? DNA 'Borgs' Blur Boundaries". Quanta Magazine. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
- ^ Dance A (16 July 2021). "Massive DNA 'Borg' structures perplex scientists". Nature. 595 (7869): 636. Bibcode:2021Natur.595..636D. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-01947-3.
- ^ Sandoval J (30 July 2021). "Previously undiscovered DNA 'borgs' found on California wetlands". The Independent. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
- ^ a b c d Schoelmerich MC, Sachdeva R, West-Roberts J, Waldburger L, Banfield JF (January 2023). "Tandem repeats in giant archaeal Borg elements undergo rapid evolution and create new intrinsically disordered regions in proteins". PLOS Biology. 21 (1): e3001980. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3001980. PMC 9879509. PMID 36701369.
- ^ Xian Y, Xiao C (2020-01-01). Kielian M, Mettenleiter TC, Roossinck MJ (eds.). "Current capsid assembly models of icosahedral nucleocytoviricota viruses". Advances in Virus Research. Virus Assembly and Exit Pathways. 108. Academic Press: 275–313. doi:10.1016/bs.aivir.2020.09.006. ISBN 9780128207611. PMC 8328511. PMID 33837719.