Bourgeois revolution is a term used in Marxist theory to refer to a social revolution that aims to destroy a feudal system or its vestiges, establish the rule of the bourgeoisie, and create a bourgeois (capitalist) state.[1][2] In colonised or subjugated countries, bourgeois revolutions often take the form of a war of national independence. The Dutch, English, American, and French revolutions are considered the archetypal bourgeois revolutions,[3][4] in that they attempted to clear away the remnants of the medieval feudal system, so as to pave the way for the rise of capitalism.[1] The term is usually used in contrast to "proletarian revolution", and is also sometimes called a "bourgeois-democratic revolution".[5][6]
Theories of bourgeois revolutionedit
According to one version of the two-stage theory, bourgeois revolution was asserted to be a necessary step in the move toward socialism, as codified by Georgi Plekhanov.[7][8] In this view, countries that had preserved their feudal structure, like Russia, would have to establish capitalism via a bourgeois revolution before being able to wage a proletarian revolution.[9][10] At the time of the Russian Revolution, the Mensheviks asserted this theory, arguing that a revolution led by bourgeoisie was necessary to modernise society, establish basic freedoms, and overcome feudalism, which would establish the conditions necessary for socialism.[9] This view is prominent in Marxist-Leninist analysis.[11][12]
Political sociologistBarrington Moore Jr. identified bourgeois revolution as one of three routes from pre-industrial society to the modern world, in which a capitalist mode of production is combined with liberal democracy. Moore identified the English, French, and American revolutions as examples of this route.[13]
Neil Davidson believes that neither the establishment of democracy or the end of feudal relations are defining characteristics of bourgeois revolutions, but instead supports Alex Callinicos' definition of bourgeois revolution as being those that establish "an independent center of capital accumulation".[6][14][15] Charles Post labels this analysis as consequentialism, where there is no requirement of the prior development of capitalism or bourgeois class agency for bourgeois revolutions, and that they are only defined by the effects of the revolutions to promote the development of capital accumulation.[16]
Other theories describe the evolution of the bourgeoisie as not needing a revolution.[17] The German bourgeoisie during the 1848 revolution did not strive to take command of the political effort and instead sided with the crown.[18][19] Davidson attributes their behaviour to the late development of capitalist relations and uses this as the model for the evolution of the bourgeoisie.[20]
Although with much less diffusion, some social movements of the European Late Middle Ages have also received the name of bourgeois revolution, in which the bourgeoisie begins to define itself in the nascent cities as a social class. Examples include the Ciompi Revolt in the Republic of Florence, Jacquerie revolts during the Hundred Years' War in France,[33] and Bourgeois revolts of Sahagún [es] in Spain.[34][35]
Bourgeois revolutions in the early modern periodedit
The first wave of bourgeois revolutions are those that occurred within the early modern period and were typically marked by being driven from below by the petty bourgeoisie against absolutist governments.[6]
German Peasants' War (1524–1525) (it has been labelled by later historians as an early attempt at a bourgeois revolution)[36]
Bourgeois revolutions in the late modern periodedit
The second wave of bourgeois revolutions are those that occurred within the late modern period and were typically marked by being led from above by the haute bourgeoisie.[6]
^ abcdeEisenstein (2010), p. 64, quoted in Davidson, Neil (2012). "From Society to Politics; From Event to Process". How Revolutionary Were the Bourgeois Revolutions?. Chicago, Illinois: Haymarket Books. pp. 381–382. ISBN 978-1-60846-067-0.
^Wilczynski, Jozef, ed. (1981). "Bourgeois Revolution". An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Marxism, Socialism and Communism. London: Macmillan Press. p. 48. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-05806-8. ISBN 978-1-349-05806-8.
^ abcdefghDavidson, Neil (May 2012). "Bourgeois Revolution and the US Civil War". International Socialist Review. No. 83. Center For Economic Research and Social Change. Archived from the original on 27 December 2021.
^Plekhanov, Georgi (1949) [1895]. The Bourgeois Revolution: The Political Birth of Capitalism. Archived from the original on 1 September 2018 – via Marxists Internet Archive.
^ ab"Stagism". Encyclopedia of Marxism. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2018 – via Marxists Internet Archive.
^Lane, David (22 April 2020). "Revisiting Lenin's theory of socialist revolution on the 150th anniversary of his birth". European Politics and Policy. London School of Economics. Archived from the original on 3 May 2020.
^Caputo, Renato. "Grandezza e limiti della rivoluzione borghese in Marx" [Magnitude and limits of the bourgeois revolution in Marx]. La Città Futura (in Italian). Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
^Cervelli, Innocenzo (1976). "Sul concetto di rivoluzione borghese" [On the concept of bourgeois revolution]. Studi Storici (in Italian). 17 (1): 147–155. JSTOR 20564411. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
^Davidson, Neil (2012). "Marx and Engels (2) 1847–52". How Revolutionary Were the Bourgeois Revolutions?. Chicago, Illinois: Haymarket Books. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-60846-067-0. In a world where most states have not yet experienced bourgeois revolutions, where most are even more economically underdeveloped than Germany, they too will give rise to "belated" bourgeoisies, the implication being that it is Germany rather than France that represents the likely pattern of bourgeois development.
^ ab"China: The bourgeois Revolution has been accomplished, the proletarian Revolution remains to be made". Communist Program (3). May 1977. Archived from the original on 10 October 2023 – via International Library of the Communist Left.
^Elsenhans, Hartmut (2012). "Democratic revolution, bourgeois revolution, Arab revolution: The political economy of a possible success". NAQD. 29 (1): 51–60. doi:10.3917/naqd.029.0051. Archived from the original on 13 April 2023.
^Mollat, Michel [in French]; Wolff, Philippe [in French] (1970). Ongles bleus, jacques et ciompi - les révolutions populaires en Europe aux XIVe et XVe siècles [Ongles bleus, Jacquerie and Ciompi - popular revolutions in Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries] (in French). Calmann-Lévy.
^Pastor de Togneri, Reyna [in Spanish] (1973). Conflictos sociales y estancamiento económico en la España medieval [Social conflicts and economic stagnation in medieval Spain] (in Spanish). Editorial Ariel.
^Martín, José Luis. Historia de España [History of Spain (A society at war)]. Historia 16 (in Spanish). Vol. 4 - Una sociedad en guerra.
^Bak, Janos (2022) [1976]. "'The Peasant War in Germany' by Friedrich Engels – 125 years later". In Bak, Janos (ed.). The German Peasant War of 1525. Routledge. pp. 93–99. doi:10.4324/9781003190950. ISBN 978-1-00-319095-0. S2CID 241881702.
^Faulkner, Neil (24 October 2011). "A Marxist History of the World part 49: The French Revolution – Themidor, Directory and Napoleon". Counterfire. Archived from the original on 21 December 2023.
^Faulkner, Neil (8 January 2012). "A Marxist History of the World part 57: The American Civil War". Counterfire. Archived from the original on 21 December 2023.
^Faulkner, Neil (18 January 2012). "A Marxist History of the World part 58: The Meiji Restoration". Counterfire. Archived from the original on 21 December 2023.
^Commission of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b), ed. (1938). "Istoriya Vsesoyuznoy kommunisticheskoy partii (bol'shevikov). Kratkiy kurs" История Всесоюзной коммунистической партии (большевиков). Краткий курс [History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). Short course] (in Russian). Archived from the original on 12 April 2023.
^Genkina, Esfir Borisovna [in Russian] (1927). Pokrovsky, Mikhail Nikolaevich [in Russian] (ed.). Fevral'skiy perevorot // Ocherki po istorii Oktyabr'skoy revolyutsii Февральский переворот // Очерки по истории Октябрьской революции [The February coup // Essays on the history of the October Revolution] (in Russian). Vol. 2.
Blackbourn, David; Eley, Geoff, eds. (12 December 1984). The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198730583.001.0001. ISBN 9780191694943. Archived from the original on 13 April 2023.
Post, Charles (2019). "How Capitalist Were the 'Bourgeois Revolutions'?". Historical Materialism. Brill. 27 (3): 157–190. doi:10.1163/1569206X-12341528. S2CID 149303334. Archived from the original on 20 February 2023.