The Catalan phonology (or Valencian phonology) has a certain degree of dialectal variation. Although there are two standard varieties, one based on Central Eastern dialect and another one based on South-Western or Valencian, this article deals with features of all or most dialects, as well as regional pronunciation differences.
Catalan is characterized by final-obstruent devoicing, lenition, and voicing assimilation; a set of 7 to 8 phonemic vowels, vowel assimilations (including vowel harmony), many phonetic diphthongs, and vowel reduction, whose precise details differ between dialects.
Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n3 | ɲ6 | (ŋ) | ||||
Plosive | voiceless | p | t1 | k2 | ||||
voiced | b | d1 | ɡ2 | |||||
Affricate | voiceless | (t͡s)5 | t͡ʃ7 | |||||
voiced | d͡z5 | d͡ʒ7 | ||||||
Fricative | voiceless | f | (θ) | s4 | ʃ7 | (x) | (h) | |
voiced | (v) | z4 | ʒ7 | (ʁ) | ||||
Approximant | central | j | w | |||||
lateral | l3 | ʎ6 | ||||||
Trill | r4 | (ʀ) | ||||||
Tap | ɾ3 |
Phonetic notes:
Obstruents assimilate to the voicing of the following consonant. Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing so that fred ('cold', m. s.) is pronounced with [t] ([ˈfɾɛt], [ˈfɾət], [ˈfɾet]) while fredes ('cold', f. pl.) is pronounced with [ð] ([ˈfɾɛðəs], [ˈfɾəðəs], [ˈfɾeðes]).[13][14][15]
Table with minimal pairs:
Coda obstruents minimal pairs | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
IPA | word | gloss | word | gloss |
[p] | cub | 'cube' | cup | 'winepress' |
[t] | tord | 'thrush' | tort | 'crooked' |
[k] | mag | 'magician' | mac | 'pebble' |
[f] | salv | 'exempt' | ||
[s] | brunz | 'he or she buzzes' | bruns | 'dark browns' |
[t͡ʃ] | raig | 'ray' |
Voiced plosives (also called stops) become lenited to fricatives or approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants:[6] /b/ → [β], /d/ → [ð], /ɡ/ → [ɣ].
In Catalan and Balearic (not in Valencian), labial /b/ and /p/, and velar stops /ɡ/ and /k/ may be geminated in intervocalic position before /l/ (e.g. poble [ˈpɔbːlə] 'village, people', regla [ˈreɡːlə] 'rule').[19][20]
Intervocalic /d/ is dropped (particularly in participles) in regular speech in Valencian, with compensatory lengthening of vowel /a/; e.g. vesprada [vesˈpɾaː] ('afternoon').[21]
In Majorcan varieties, velar stops /k/ and /ɡ/ become [c] and [ɟ] word-finally and before front vowels,[18] in some of these dialects, this has extended to all environments except before liquids and back vowels; e.g. sang [ˈsaɲc] ('blood').[6]
In the Valencian dialects final voiceless plosives (/p, t, k/) may be lenited before a vowel: tot açò [ˈtoð‿aˈsɔ] ('all this').[23]
The phonemic status of affricates is dubious; after other consonants, affricates are in free variation with fricatives, e.g. clenxa [ˈklɛɲʃə] ~ [ˈklɛɲt͡ʃə] (E) / [ˈklɛɲt͡ʃa] (W) ('hair parting')[24] and may be analyzed as either single phonemes or clusters of a stop and a fricative.
There is dialectal variation in regards to affricate length, with long affricates occurring in both Eastern and Western dialects such as in Majorca and few areas in Southern Valencia.[29] Also, intervocalic affricates are predominantly long, especially those that are voiced or occurring immediately after a stressed syllable (e.g. metge [ˈmed͡ːʒə] (E) / [ˈmed͡ːʒe] (W) 'medic').[30] In Modern Valencian [d͡ʒ] and [d͡ːʒ] have merged into /d͡ʒ/, except in some parts of Southern Valencian.
In Aragonese Catalan (especially Ribagorçan) and Central Valencian (the so called apitxat accent), voiced fricatives and affricates are missing (i.e. /z/ has merged with /s/, /d͡ʒ/ has merged with /t͡ʃ/, with only voiceless realizations occurring).[31]
The labiodental fricative (/v/) occurs in Balearic,[12] as well as in Alguerese, Standard Valencian and some areas in southern Catalonia.[32] Everywhere else (including parts of Valencian, like its central dialect),[31] it has merged with historic /β/ so that [b] and [β] occur in complementary distribution.[33]
In Majorcan and Minorcan, /f/ undergoes total assimilation to a following consonant (just as stops do): buf gros [ˈbuɡ‿ˈɡɾɔs] ('large puff').[35]
The dental fricative /θ/ only appears in Ribagorçan and Lower Aragon, in contrast with /s/. Spanish loanwords with this sound may be replaced by /s/ in both Catalan and Valencian.[36]
The velar fricative /x/ is found in Spanish interferences, especially in Aragon and Southern Valencia.[37]
The glottal fricative /h/ is found in loanwords and interjections,[38] although /h/ is usually replaced by /x/ in loanwords.[39]
Laterals assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant (see "Assimilations" below). The lateral /l/ may be geminated in careful speech (e.g. iŀlusió [ilːuziˈo] 'illusion'). A geminated /ʎː/ may also occur (e.g. ratlla [ˈraʎːə] (E) / [ˈraʎːa] (W) 'line').[12]
Nasals assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant (see "Assimilations" below). In careful speech, /n/ and /m/ may be geminated (e.g. innecessari [inːəsəˈsaɾi] (E) / [inːeseˈsaɾi] (W) 'unnecessary', emmagatzemar [əmːəɣəd͡zəˈma] (E) / [emːaɣa(d͡)zeˈma(ɾ)] (W) 'to store').[12]
The distribution of the two rhotics /r/ and /ɾ/ closely parallels that of Spanish. Wheeler analyzes intervocalic [r] as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme:[45] serra /ˈsɛɾɾə/ → [ˈsɛrə] (E) / /ˈsɛɾɾa/ → [ˈsɛra] (W) 'saw, mountains' (this is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and Portuguese rhotics).[46]
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i (y) | u | |
Close-mid | e (ø) | (ə) | o |
Open-mid | ɛ (œ) | ɔ | |
Open | a (ɑ) |
Phonetic notes:
Most varieties of Catalan contrast seven stressed vowel phonemes.[68] However, some Balearic dialects have an additional stressed vowel phoneme (/ə/); e.g. sec /ˈsək/ ('dry, I sit').[18] The stressed schwa of these dialects corresponds to /ɛ/ in Central Catalan and /e/ in Western Catalan varieties (that is, Central and Western Catalan dialects differ in their incidence of /e/ and /ɛ/, with /e/ appearing more frequently in Western Catalan; e.g. Central Catalan sec /ˈsɛk/ vs. Western Catalan sec /ˈsek/ ('dry, I sit').[68]
Contrasting series of the main Catalan dialects:
LS | IPA | Gloss |
---|---|---|
sac | a | 'bag' |
sec | ə | 'dry', 'I sit' |
e | 'fold' | |
sic | i | 'sic' |
soc | ɔ | 'clog' |
o | 'I am' | |
suc | u | 'juice' |
Other contrast | ||
LS | IPA | Gloss |
*set | ɛ | 'seven' |
ə | 'thirst' |
LS | IPA | Gloss |
---|---|---|
sac | a | 'bag' |
sec | e | 'dry', 'I sit' |
'fold' | ||
sic | i | 'sic' |
soc | ɔ | 'clog' |
o | 'I am' | |
suc | u | 'juice' |
Other contrast | ||
LS | IPA | Gloss |
set | ɛ | 'seven' |
e | 'thirst' |
LS | IPA | Gloss |
---|---|---|
sac | a | 'bag' |
sec | e | 'dry', 'I sit' |
'fold' | ||
sic | i | 'sic' |
soc | o[i] | 'clog' |
'I am' | ||
suc | u | 'juice' |
Other contrast | ||
LS | IPA | Gloss |
*set | e | 'seven' |
'thirst' |
In Eastern Catalan, vowels in unstressed position reduce to three : /a/, /e/, /ɛ/ → [ə] (phonetically [ɐ] in Barcelona); /o/, /ɔ/, /u/ → [u]; /i/ remains unchanged. However there are some dialectal differences: Alguerese merges /a/, /e/ and /ɛ/ with /a/; and in most areas of Majorca, [o] can appear in unstressed position (that is, /o/ and /ɔ/ are usually reduced to [o]).[71]
In Western Catalan (which includes Valencian and North-Western Catalan), vowels in unstressed position reduce to five: /e/, /ɛ/ → [e]; /o/, /ɔ/ → [o]; /a/, /u/, /i/ remain unchanged.[72] However, in some Western dialects reduced vowels tend to merge into different realizations in some cases:
Term | IPA | Gloss |
---|---|---|
parla | ə | 'speech' |
rere | 'back' | |
lliri | i | 'lily' |
ferro | o[iii] | 'iron' |
mutu | u | 'mutual' |
Term | IPA | Gloss |
---|---|---|
parla | a | 'speech' |
rere | e | 'back' |
lliri | i | 'lily' |
ferro | o | 'iron' |
mutu | u | 'mutual' |
The harmony of Valencian is a clear example of harmony conditioned by a strong element: in some Valencian dialects, word-final post-tonic /a/ becomes [ɛ] and [ɔ] when the preceding syllable contains tonic open-mid (or near-open) vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/; that is, /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ propagate the palatal and labial features, respectively, to the final vowel /a/, as the examples. The articulatory features extend from a phonologically privileged position—the stressed syllable—to a weak position—an unstressed syllable—a perceptual asymmetry emphasized by the fact that the harmony trigger belongs to the radical while the assimilated segment is normally an inflectional affix.
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
terra | [ˈtɛrɛ] | 'Earth, land' |
tela | [ˈtɛlɛ] | 'fabric' |
pela | [ˈpɛlɛ] | 'he or she peels' |
perla | [ˈpɛɾlɛ] | 'pearl' |
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
cosa | [ˈkɔzɔ] | 'thing' |
mora | [ˈmɔɾɔ] | 'Moor', f. |
tova | [ˈtɔvɔ] | 'soft', f. |
vora | [ˈvɔɾɔ] | 'edge, shore' |
In the most widespread system of harmony, both open-mid vowels cause assimilation; in other systems, distributed over the harmonic territory quite randomly, only one of the vowels triggers the change. For example, in Cullera only the front vowel causes assimilation, while in Borriana the labial vowel is the only one that allows harmony. However, in both the broadest and the narrowest versions, and even in the sporadic cases of two-way harmony that are presented here, the pattern of strong → weak extension remains constant.
In the harmonic phenomenon just described, articulatory features spread from left to right. However, there is no shortage of assimilations in which the features spread to the left of the prominent position. This occurs in Majorcan when pretonic /o/ is closed to [u] in words that contain a close tonic vowel, e.g. c[u]nill, c[u]sí, c[u]mú (cf. Veny Clar (1982)). The change involves the extension of the height feature again in the direction dictated by the strong → weak saliency relationship. Similar closures are documented in various Western languages; among these, Tortosan stands out, where the phenomenon, quite variable and often limited to the elderly, presents the peculiarity that height does not only propagate from tonic vowels, but can also do so from unstressed ones (cfr. Morales). In general terms, and in accordance with the data collected by Morales (in prep.), a pretonic mid vowel may become close under the influence of a close vowel with the same point of articulation—palatal or labial—in a following syllable; in this way, vowel sequences of the type e...i and o...u become i...i a) and u...u b), respectively. The assimilation of mid vowels to a high vowel of a different point of articulation is possible, but in the sequence e...u it is reduced to some words c), and in the sequence o...i it is usually limited to fossilized cases, so that the disharmonious alternatives in d) reflect only copied pronunciations of the orthography.[76]
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
melic | [miˈlik] | 'belly button' |
delicat | [diliˈkat] | 'delicate' |
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
absolut | [apsuˈlut] | 'absolute' |
bromur | [bɾuˈmur] | 'bromide' |
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
betum | [biˈtum] | 'betumen' |
menut | [miˈnut] | 'small' |
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
avorrir | [aβuˈrir] | 'to bore' |
botiga | [buˈtiɣa] | 'shop' |
Of the phenomena presented above, the most common and systematic is the change e...i → i...i. As in the examples, /e/ becomes [i] when it precedes a stressed /i/ or unstressed /i/. Closure can even affect a series of two pretonic vowels. Assimilation never affects stressed vowels and there is also no harmony when /e/ and /i/ do not occupy adjacent syllables.
With certain restrictions, the phenomenon can modify the final vowel of the first element of a compound and proclitic elements such as numerals or unstressed pronouns. In the last case, when the vowel of the pronoun is not strictly adjacent to the syllable that triggers the harmony, there is no assimilation; according to Morales (in prep.), the lack of spread is related to the fact that groups of pronouns generate a secondary accent, which would protect the original quality of the vowel.
Morales also reports some examples of rightward (regressive) assimilation between weak elements; that is, cases where an unstressed sequence i...e becomes i...i. Harmony to the right is documented only between vowels that are in pretonic position; therefore, the inflectional elements and the post-tonic vowels belonging to the radical are excluded from the change.
General Valencian is another variety in which the extension of features is limited to the main metric foot: in plain words, the final post-tonic, which is part of the main foot, is affected by harmony a); on the other hand, in proparoxytone words (esdrúixoles) the final does not belong to the main foot and is, therefore, beyond the scope of assimilation b). In Valencian from the south of Alicante, the harmony affects an intermediate layer between the main metrical foot and the clitic group: the prosodic word (PPr) (cfr. Montoya (1989), Segura (1996), Beltran (2008)).
Harmony in General Valencian:
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
afecta | [aˈfɛktɛ] | 'affects' |
granota | [ɡɾaˈnɔtɔ] | 'frog' |
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
mèdica | [ˈmɛðika] | 'medic', f. |
ròtula | [ˈrɔtula] | 'kneecap' |
Harmony from Southern Valencian (Alicante):
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
afecta | [ɛˈfɛktɛ] | 'affects' |
granota | [ɡɾɔˈnɔtɔ] | 'frog' |
In the harmony of Valencian, Majorcan and, mostly, Tortosan, the features extend from a strong element to a weak element. In the other possible model, on the other hand, the features are spread in the reverse direction, that is, from positions that are not prominent to positions that are stronger from the perceptual point of view. The trigger for change is in this case a weak element (cf. Walker (2005)). Central Catalan provides an example of harmony—with considerable geographical and idiolectal variation—conditioned by segments located in weak positions. In this dialect, stressed mid vowels in words from other languages tend to be adapted as open mids, as in the paroxytones in example a), with regular reduction in the unstressed syllable, that is, with the vowels [ə], [i] and [u] in this position. Borrowings also have the peculiarity that they tend to block the neutralization of the unstressed middle vowels e and o, which are realized as [e] and [o], respectively. In principle, these two trends should not be mutually exclusive; however, if the post-tonic sound is close-mid, the tonic mids are usually also realized as close, as shown by the plain words in example b), in which the levelling between the two vowels is almost universal. Therefore, the quality of the most prominent vowel is determined by the features of the following vowel, since the appearance of close-mid vowels in tonic position depends on the presence of vowels of the same pitch in the post-tonic syllable.
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
Creta | [ˈkɾɛtə] | 'Crete' |
euro | [ˈɛwɾu] | 'Euro' |
Betty | [ˈbɛti] | 'Betty' |
Rodes | [ˈrɔðəs] | 'Rhodes' |
poli | [ˈpɔli] | 'cop' |
gnosi | [ˈnɔzi] | 'gnosis' |
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
Lesbos | [ˈlezβos] | 'Lesbos' |
euro | [ˈewɾo] | 'Euro' |
Bette | [ˈbete] | 'Bette' |
Rodos | [ˈroðos] | 'Rodos' |
polo | [ˈpolo] | 'polo' |
Cnossos | [ˈnosos] | 'Knossos' |
In proparoxytones there is greater variability. In the variety analyzed by Cabré Castellví (2009) esdrúixol words (i.e. words with stressed on the antepenultimate syllable) are generally subject to the same restrictions and the presence of a close mid in post-tonic position implies the presence of close mids in tonic position a); the syllabic adjacency between the two vowels is key to harmony, since words like Sòcrates [ˈsɔkɾətes] or Hèrcules [ɛrkules] are usually presented without assimilation despite the presence of an unreduced post-tonic e. In the variety described by Bonet Alsina, Lloret-Romanyach & Mascaró Altimiras (2007), on the other hand, post-tonic vowels do not condition the realization of the tonic vowel in esdrúixols b). On the other hand, and in accordance with the interpretation of the aforementioned authors, the adaptation of tonic vowels as open mids is compatible in all varieties with the appearance of unreduced mid vowels in pre-tonic syllables.
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
Jespersen | [ˈʒespersen] | 'Jespersen' |
Penèlope | [peˈnelope] | 'Penelope' |
Hölderlin | [ˈxolderlin] | 'Hölderlin' |
Example | IPA | Translation |
---|---|---|
Jespersen | [ˈʒɛspersen] | 'Jespersen' |
Penèlope | [peˈnɛlope] | 'Penelope' |
Sòfocles | [ˈsɔfokles] | 'Sophocles' |
Other harmony examples in Central Catalan:
Example | IPA |
---|---|
Everest | [eβeˈɾɛst] |
Interpol | [interˈpɔl] |
Example | IPA |
---|---|
OPEC | [oˈpɛk] |
Repsol | [repˈsɔl] |
Example | IPA |
---|---|
Flaubert | [floˈβɛrt] |
Montessori | [monteˈsɔɾi] |
One of the most unique features of Catalan and Valencian is the treatment of vowels that come into contact within the speech chain. When a word-final vowel meets an initial vowel there are two possible reactions: lengthening (if both vowels are the same)[77] or weakening/elision of one of the vowels (if they are different).[78] In general terms, two consecutive vowels diphthongize more frequently in Valencian, North Western Catalan and Alguerese.[79] Some examples (in Valencian):
There are also a number of phonetic diphthongs and triphthongs, all of which begin and/or end in [j] or [w].[80]
Falling diphthongs | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
IPA | word | gloss | IPA | word | gloss |
[aj] | aigua | 'water' | [aw] | taula | 'table' |
[əj] (E) / [aj] (W) | mainada | 'children' | [əw] (E) / [aw] (W) | caurem | 'we will fall' |
[ɛj] | oleic | 'oleic' | [ɛw] | peu | 'foot' |
[ej] | rei | 'king' | [ew] | seu | 'his/her' |
[əj] (E) / [ej] (W) | Eivissa | 'Ibiza' | [əw] (E) / [ew] (W) | eufemisme | 'euphemism' |
[ij][i] (B) | novii | 'bridegroom' | [iw] | niu | 'nest' |
[ɔj] | heroi | 'hero' | [ɔw][ii] | nou | 'new' |
[uj] (E) / [oj] (W) | Moisès / Moisés | 'Moses' | [ow][iii] | sou, mouré | 'you are', 'I will move' |
[uj][iv] | cuit | 'cooked' | [uw] | duu | 'he or she carries' |
Rising diphthongs | |||||
IPA | word | gloss | IPA | word | gloss |
[ja] | iaio | 'grandpa' | [wa] | guant | 'glove' |
[jə] (E) / [ja] (W) | feia | 'he or she was doing' | [wə] (E) / [wa] (W) | aquareŀla | 'watercolour' |
[jɛ] | Aielo | 'Aielo' | [wɛ] | seqüència | 'sequence' |
[je] | seient | 'seat' | [we] | ungüent | 'ointment' |
[jə] (E) / [je] (W) | laietans | 'Laietani' | [wə] (E) / [we] (W) | qüestió | 'question' |
[wi] | pingüí | 'penguin' | |||
[jɔ] | iode | 'iodine' | [wɔ] | quota | 'payment' |
[ju] (E) / [jo] (W) | iogurt | 'yoghurt' | [wo] | seuós | 'greasy' |
[ju] | iugoslau | 'Yugoslav' | |||
Triphthongs | |||||
IPA | word | gloss | IPA | word | gloss |
[jaj] | iai | 'old person' | [waj] | Alguaire | 'Alguaire' |
[wəj] (E) / [waj] (W) | guaitar | 'to observe, look' | |||
[jɛw] (E) / [jew] (W) | veieu | 'you see' | [wɛw][v] (E) / [wew] (W) | adeqüeu | 'you adequate' |
[jəw] (E) / [jew] (W) | dèieu | 'you were saying' |
In Standard Eastern Catalan, rising diphthongs (that is, those starting with [j] or [w]) are only possible in the following contexts:[81]
There are certain instances of compensatory diphthongization in Majorcan so that troncs /ˈtɾoncs/ ('logs') (in addition to deleting the palatal stop) develops a compensating palatal glide and surfaces as [ˈtɾojns] (and contrasts with the unpluralized [ˈtɾoɲc]). Diphthongization compensates for the loss of the palatal stop (segment loss compensation). There are other cases where diphthongization compensates for the loss of point of articulation features (property loss compensation) as in [ˈaɲ] ('year') vs. [ˈajns] ('years').[84]
The dialectal distribution of compensatory diphthongization is almost entirely dependent on the dorsal stop (/k~c/) and the extent of consonant assimilation (whether or not it is extended to palatals).[85]
Voiced affricates are devoiced after stressed vowels in dialects like Eastern Catalan where there may be a correlation between devoicing and lengthening (gemination) of voiced affricates: metge /ˈmed͡ːʒə/ → [ˈmet͡ːʃə] ('medic').[9] In Barcelona, voiced stops may be fortified (geminated and devoiced); e.g. poble [ˈpɔpːlə] 'village, people').[12]
In (Majorcan) Catalan is known the historical process of erasing the vowel (the nucleus) of unstressed final syllables. Burzio (1988) (cited by Kenstowicz (1994)) and Kaye (1990), have proposed similar theories, in that one or more 'extrasyllabic' final consonants represent the opening of a syllable with null vowel (Burzio) or empty nucleus (Kaye). However, in the case of Catalan, such a structure is fundamentally the one that has been proposed (e.g. in Mascaró Altimiras (1987)) to trigger vowel epenthesis in cases such as the followings:[86]
Nasal | Lateral | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
IPA | word | gloss | IPA | word | gloss |
[ɱ] | ínfim | 'lowest' | |||
[n̪] | anterior | 'previous' | [l̪] | altes | 'tall' (f. pl.) |
[ɲ] | engegar | 'to start (up)' | [ʎ] | àlgid | 'decisive' |
[ŋ] | angle | 'angle' | |||
[ŋn] | sagna | 'he or she bleeds' | |||
[mː] | setmana | 'week' | |||
[nː] | cotna | 'rind' | [lː] | Betlem | 'Bethlehem' |
[ʎː] | rotllo | 'roll' |
Catalan denti-alveolar stops can fully assimilate to the following consonant, producing gemination; this is particularly evident before nasal and lateral consonants: e.g. setmana ('week'), cotna ('rind'), Betlem, rotllo ('roll'). Learned words can alternate between featuring and not featuring such assimilation (e.g. atles [ˈadləs] ~ [ˈalːəs] (E) / [ˈadlas] ~ [ˈalːas] (W) 'atlas', sotmetre [sudˈmɛtɾə] ~ [suˈmːɛtɾə] (E) / [sodˈmetɾe] ~ [soˈmːetɾe] (W) 'to submit', ètnic [ˈɛdnik] ~ [ˈɛnːik] 'ethnic').[87][88]
There is dialectal variation regarding words with ⟨tll⟩. While Central and North-Western Catalan tend to innovate with a palatalised pronunciation [ʎː], Valencian and Balearic maintain the traditional pronunciation without palatalisation [lː], i.e. ⟨tl⟩, in most cases (e.g. ametlla vs ametla 'almond').
Valencian dialects (especially Central Valencian) features simple elision in many of these cases (e.g setmana [seˈmana] 'week', rotllo [ˈroʎo] 'roll') and learned words might not exhibit either assimilation or elision: atles [ˈadles] and administrar [adminisˈtɾaɾ].[89]
Stress most often occurs on any of the last three syllables of a word (e.g. brúixola [ˈbɾuʃulə] (E) / [ˈbɾujʃola] (W) 'compass', càstig [ˈkastik] 'punishment', pallús [pəˈʎus] (E) / [paˈʎus] (W) 'fool').
Compound words and adverbs formed with /ˈment/ may have a syllable with secondary stress (e.g. bonament [ˌbɔnəˈmen] (E) [ˌbɔnaˈmen(t)] (W) 'willingly'; parallamps [ˌpaɾəˈʎams] (E) [ˌpaɾaˈʎamps] (W) 'lightning conductor') but every lexical word has just one syllable with main stress.[14]
The structure of the syllable shows a mandatory nucleus, and the optional presence of a margin before and/or behind the nucleus. Core and margin contrast articulatory due to the fact that the core is emitted with a higher degree of oral opening than the margin. In Catalan and Valencian, the core position is occupied by a vowel and the margin position by one or more consonants. Depending on the number of consonants that make up the margin and the location of the margin in relation to the core, syllabic structures of the type V, CV, VC, CVC, CCV, CCVC, CCVCC, VCC, VCCC, CVCC, CVCCC, etc. are possible. The margin that precedes the nucleus is called "explosive", and the one that follows it, "implosive", syllables can be classified as "open" or "closed" by virtue of the absence or presence of a margin postnuclear, respectively.[90]
Any consonant, as well as [j] and [w] may be an onset. Clusters may consist of a consonant plus a semivowel (C[j], C[w]) or an obstruent plus a liquid. Some speakers may have one of these obstruent-plus-liquid clusters preceding a semivowel, e.g. síndria [ˈsin.dɾjə] ('watermelon'); for other speakers, this is pronounced [ˈsin.dɾi.ə] (i.e. the semivowel must be syllabic in this context).[91]
Word-medial codas are restricted to one consonant + [s] (extra [ˈɛks.tɾə] (E) / [ˈɛks.tɾa] (W)).[92] In the coda position, voice contrasts among obstruents are neutralized.[93] Although there are exceptions (such as futur [fuˈtuɾ] 'future'), syllable-final rhotics are often lost before a word boundary or before the plural morpheme of most words: color [kuˈlo] (E) / [koˈlo(ɾ)] (W) ('color') vs. coloraina [kuluˈɾajnə] (E) / [koloˈɾajna] (W) ('bright color').[12]
In Central Eastern (and North-Western Catalan), obstruents fail to surface word-finally when preceded by a homorganic consonant (e.g. /nt/ → [n̪]). Complex codas simplify only if the loss of the segment doesn't result in the loss of place specification.[94]
Final | gloss | Internal | gloss | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
no cluster | camp | [ˈkam] | 'field' | camperol | [kəmpəˈɾɔl] (EC) [kampeˈɾɔl] (NW) |
'peasant' |
punt | [ˈpun̪] | 'point' | punta | [ˈpun̪tə] (EC) [ˈpun̪ta] (NW) |
'tip' | |
banc | [ˈbaŋ] | 'bank' | banca | [ˈbaŋkə] (EC) [ˈbaŋka] (NW) |
'banking' | |
malalt | [məˈlal̪] (EC) [maˈlal̪] (NW) |
'ill' | malaltia | [mələl̪ˈti.ə] (EC) [malal̪ˈti.a] (NW) |
'illness' | |
hort | [ˈɔr] | 'orchard' | hortalissa | [uɾtəˈlisə](EC) [oɾtaˈlisa] (NW) |
'vegetable' | |
gust | [ˈɡus] | 'taste' | gustar | [ɡusˈta] | 'to taste' | |
cluster | serp | [ˈserp] | 'snake' | serpentí | [səɾpənˈti] (EC) [seɾpenˈti] (NW) |
'snake-like' |
disc | [ˈdisk] | 'disk' | disquet | [disˈkɛt] (EC) [disˈket] (NW) |
'diskette' | |
remolc | [rəˈmɔlk] (EC) [reˈmɔlk] (NW) |
'trailer' | remolcar | [rəˈmulka] (NE) [reˈmolka] (NW) |
'to tow' |
When the suffix -erol [əˈɾɔl] is added to camp [ˈkam] it makes [kəmpəˈɾɔl], indicating that the underlying representation is /ˈkamp/ (with subsequent cluster simplification), however when the copula [ˈes] is added it makes [ˈkam ˈes]. The resulting generalization is that this underlying /p/ will only surface in a morphologically complex word.[95] Despite this, word-final codas are not usually simplified in most of Balearic and Valencian (e.g. camp [ˈkamp]).[96]
Word-initial clusters from Graeco-Latin learned words tend to drop the first phoneme: gnom [ˈnom] ('gnome'), mnemotècnia [nəmuˈtɛŋniə] (E) / [nemoˈtɛŋnia] (W) ('mnemotechnical'), pneumàtic [nəwˈmatik] (E) / [newˈmatik] (W) ('pneumatic'), pseudònim [səwˈðɔnim] (E) / [sewˈðɔnim] (W) ('pseudonym'), pterodàctil [təɾuˈðaktil] (E) / [teɾoˈðaktil] (W) ('pterodactylus').[97]
Word-final obstruents are devoiced; however, they assimilate voicing of the following consonant, e.g. cuc de seda [ˈkuɡ‿də ˈsɛðə] (E) / [ˈkuɡ‿de ˈsɛða] (W) ('silkworm'). In regular and fast speech, stops often assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant producing phonetic gemination: tot bé [ˈtod‿ˈbe] → [ˈtob‿ˈbe] ('all good').[98]
Word-final fricatives (except /f/) are voiced before a following vowel; e.g. bus enorme [ˈbuz‿əˈnormə] (E) / [ˈbuz‿eˈnorme] (W) ('huge bus').[99]
The differences in the vocalic systems outlined above are the main criteria used to differentiate between the major dialects: Wheeler distinguishes two major dialect groups, western and eastern dialects; the latter of which only allow [i], [ə], and [u] to appear in unstressed syllables and include Northern Catalan, Central Catalan, Balearic, and Alguerese. Western dialects, which allow any vowel in unstressed syllables, include Valencian and North-Western Catalan.[101]
Regarding consonants, betacism and fricative–affricate alternations are the most prominent differences between dialects.
Other dialectal features are:
Catalan shares features with neighboring Romance languages (Occitan, Italian, Sardinian, French, Spanish).[110]
In contrast with other Romance languages, Catalan has many monosyllabic words; and those ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters.[111] Also, Catalan has final obstruent devoicing, thus featuring many couplets like amic ('male friend') vs. amiga ('female friend').[111]
Original | Tots els éssers humans neixen/naixen lliures i iguals en dignitat i en drets. Són dotats de raó i de consciència, i han de comportar-se fraternalment els uns amb els altres. |
---|---|
Majorcan (Balearic) Catalan IPA | [ˈtodz‿əlz‿ˈesərz‿uˈmanz ˈneʃən ˈʎiu̯ɾəz‿iːˈɣwalz‿ən diŋniˈtat‿j‿ən ˈdɾəts ‖ son dotadz‿ðə rəˈo‿i̯ ðə konsiˈɛ̞nsi | j‿an də kompoɾˈtaɾ.sə fɾətəɾnalˈment‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əmb‿əlz‿altɾəs] |
Eastern Central Catalan IPA | [ˈtodz‿əlz‿ˈesərz‿uˈmanz ˈneʃən ˈʎiu̯ɾəz‿iːˈɣwalz‿ən diŋniˈtat‿j‿ən ˈdɾɛts ‖ son dutadz‿ðə rəˈo‿i̯ ðə kunsiˈɛnsiə | j‿an də kumpurˈtaɾ.sə fɾətərnalˈmen‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əmb‿əlz‿altɾəs] |
Northern Catalan IPA | [ˈtudz‿əlz‿ˈe̞sərz‿uˈmanz ˈne̞ʃən ˈʎiu̯ɾəz‿iːˈgwalz‿ən diŋniˈtat‿j‿ən ˈdɾe̞ts ‖ sun dutadz‿ðə rəˈu‿i̯ də kunsiˈe̞nsi | j‿an də kumpurˈtaɾ.sə fɾətərnalˈme̞n‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əmb‿əlz‿altɾəs] |
North-Western Catalan IPA | [ˈtodz‿elz‿ˈeseɾz‿uˈmanz ˈnajʃen ˈʎiu̯ɾez‿iːˈɣwalz‿en diŋniˈtat‿j‿en ˈdɾets ‖ son dotadz‿ðe raˈo‿i̯ ðe konsiˈɛnsia | j‿an de kompoɾˈtaɾ.se fɾateɾnalˈmen‿elz‿ˈunz‿amb‿elz‿altɾes] |
Valencian IPA | [ˈtodz‿elz‿ˈeseɾz‿uˈmanz ˈnajʃen ˈʎiu̯ɾez‿iːˈɣwalz‿en diŋniˈtat‿j‿en ˈdɾets ‖ son dotadz‿ðe raˈo‿i̯ ðe konsiˈɛ̞nsia | j‿an de kompoɾˈtaɾ.se fɾateɾnalˈment‿elz‿ˈunz‿amb‿elz‿a(l)tɾes] |
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