Corynebacterium (/kɔːˈraɪnəbækˌtɪəriəm,-ˈrɪn-/) is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria and most are aerobic. They are bacilli (rod-shaped), and in some phases of life they are, more specifically, club-shaped, which inspired the genus name (coryneform means "club-shaped").
The genus Corynebacterium was created by Lehmann and Neumann in 1896 as a taxonomic group to contain the bacterial rods responsible for causing diphtheria. The genus was defined based on morphological characteristics. Based on studies of 16S rRNA, they have been grouped into the subdivision of Gram-positive Eubacteria with high G:C content, with close phylogenetic relationship to Arthrobacter, Mycobacterium, Nocardia, and Streptomyces.[8]
The term comes from Greek κορύνη, korýnē 'club, mace, staff, knobby plant bud or shoot'[9] and βακτήριον, baktḗrion 'little rod'.[10] The term "diphtheroids" is used to represent corynebacteria that are nonpathogenic; for example, C. diphtheriae would be excluded.[citation needed] The term diphtheroid comes from Greek διφθέρα, diphthérā 'prepared hide, leather'.[11][12]
Genomicsedit
Comparative analysis of corynebacterial genomes has led to the identification of several conserved signature indels (CSIs) that are unique to the genus. Two examples of CSIs are a two-amino-acid insertion in a conserved region of the enzyme phosphoribose diphosphate:decaprenyl-phosphate phosphoribosyltransferase and a three-amino-acid insertion in acetate kinase, both of which are found only in Corynebacterium species. Both of these indels serve as molecular markers for species of the genus Corynebacterium. Additionally, 16 conserved signature proteins, which are uniquely found in Corynebacterium species, have been identified. Three of these have homologs found in the genus Dietzia, which is believed to be the closest related genus to Corynebacterium. In phylogenetic trees based on concatenated protein sequences or 16S rRNA, the genus Corynebacterium forms a distinct clade, within which is a distinct subclade, cluster I. The cluster is made up of the species C. diphtheriae, C. pseudotuberculosis, C. ulcerans, C. aurimucosum, C. glutamicum, and C. efficiens. This cluster is distinguished by several conserved signature indels, such as a two-amino-acid insertion in LepA and a seven- or eight-amino-acid insertions in RpoC. Also, 21 conserved signature proteins are found only in members of cluster I. Another cluster has been proposed, consisting of C. jeikeium and C. urealyticum, which is supported by the presence of 19 distinct conserved signature proteins which are unique to these two species.[13] Corynebateria have a high G+C content ranging from 46-74 mol%.[14]
Characteristicsedit
The principal features of the genus Corynebacterium were described by Collins and Cummins, for Coryn Taylor in 1986.[15] They are gram-positive, catalase-positive, non-spore-forming, non-motile, rod-shaped bacteria that are straight or slightly curved.[16]Metachromatic granules are usually present representing stored phosphate regions. Their size falls between 2 and 6 μm in length and 0.5 μm in diameter. The bacteria group together in a characteristic way, which has been described as the form of a "V", "palisades", or "Chinese characters". They may also appear elliptical. They are aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, chemoorganotrophs. They are pleomorphic through their lifecycles, they occur in various lengths, and they frequently have thickenings at either end, depending on the surrounding conditions.[17]
The cell wall is distinctive, with a predominance of mesodiaminopimelic acid in the murein wall[3][16] and many repetitions of arabinogalactan, as well as corynemycolic acid (a mycolic acid with 22 to 26 carbon atoms), bound by disaccharide bonds called L-Rhap-(1 → 4)--D-GlcNAc-phosphate. These form a complex commonly seen in Corynebacterium species: the mycolyl-AG–peptidoglican (mAGP).[21] Unlike most corynebacteria, Corynebacterium kroppenstedtii does not contain mycolic acids.[22]
Cultureedit
Corynebacteria grow slowly, even on enriched media. In nutritional requirements, all need biotin to grow. Some strains also need thiamine and PABA.[15] Some of the Corynebacterium species with sequenced genomes have between 2.5 and 3.0 million base pairs. The bacteria grow in Loeffler's medium, blood agar, and trypticase soy agar (TSA). They form small, grayish colonies with a granular appearance, mostly translucent, but with opaque centers, convex, with continuous borders.[16] The color tends to be yellowish-white in Loeffler's medium. In TSA, they can form grey colonies with black centers and dentated borders that either resemble flowers (C. gravis), continuous borders (C. mitis), or a mix between the two forms (C. intermedium).[citation needed]
L-Lysine production is specific to C. glutamicum in which core metabolic enzymes are manipulated through genetic engineering to drive metabolic flux towards the production of NADPH from the pentose phosphate pathway, and L-4-aspartyl phosphate, the commitment step to the synthesis of L-lysine, lysC, dapA, dapC, and dapF. These enzymes are up-regulated in industry through genetic engineering to ensure adequate amounts of lysine precursors are produced to increase metabolic flux. Unwanted side reactions such as threonine and asparagine production can occur if a buildup of intermediates occurs, so scientists have developed mutant strains of C. glutamicum through PCR engineering and chemical knockouts to ensure production of side-reaction enzymes are limited. Many genetic manipulations conducted in industry are by traditional cross-over methods or inhibition of transcriptional activators.[47]
Expression of functionally active human epidermal growth factor has been brought about in C. glutamicum,[48] thus demonstrating a potential for industrial-scale production of human proteins. Expressed proteins can be targeted for secretion through either the general secretory pathway or the twin-arginine translocation pathway.[49]
Unlike gram-negative bacteria, the gram-positive Corynebacterium species lack lipopolysaccharides that function as antigenic endotoxins in humans.[citation needed]
Speciesedit
Corynebacterium comprises the following species:[50]
C. vitaeruminis corrig. (Bechdel et al. 1928) Lanéelle et al. 1980
C. wankanglinii Zhang et al. 2021
C. xerosis (Lehmann and Neumann 1896) Lehmann and Neumann 1899 (Approved Lists 1980)
C. yudongzhengii Zhu et al. 2020
C. zhongnanshanii Zhang et al. 2021
Referencesedit
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^ abcdCollins, M. D. (2004). "Corynebacterium caspium sp. nov., from a Caspian seal (Phoca caspica)". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 54 (3): 925–8. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.02950-0. PMID 15143043.
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^Burkovski A., ed. (2008). Corynebacteria: Genomics and Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-30-1.[page needed]
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Wikispecies has information related to Corynebacterium.
Burkovski, Andreas, ed. (2008). Corynebacteria: Genomics and Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-30-1.
Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-8385-8529-0.
Database of Corynebacterial Transcription Factors and Regulatory Networks
Rollins, David M. University of Maryland: Pathogentic Microbiology: Corynebacterium [1]
Khamis, A.; Raoult, D.; Scola, B. La (2004). "rpoB gene sequencing for identification of Corynebacterium species". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 42 (9): 3925–3931. doi:10.1128/jcm.42.9.3925-3931.2004. PMC516356. PMID 15364970.
Poetsch, A.; Haußmann, U.; Burkovski, A. (2011). "Proteomics of corynebacteria: From biotechnology workhorses to pathogens". Proteomics. 2011 (11): 3244–3255. doi:10.1002/pmic.201000786. PMID 21674800. S2CID 44274690.
Goldenberger, D.; et al. (2014). "Extended characterization of Corynebacterium pyruviciproducens based on clinical strains from Canada and Switzerland". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 52 (9): 3180–3183. doi:10.1128/jcm.00792-14. PMC4313134. PMID 24951802.
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