Summary
Disorder of written expression is a type of learning disability in which a person's writing ability falls substantially below normally expected range based on the individual's age, educational background, and measured intelligence. Poor writing skills must interfere significantly with academic progress or daily activities that involves written expression[1] (spelling, grammar, handwriting, punctuation, word usage, etc.).[2] This disorder is also generally concurrent with disorders of reading and/or mathematics, as well as disorders related to behavior. Since it is so often associated with other learning disorders and mental problems, it is uncertain whether it can appear by itself;[3] and dysgraphia can be considered to be a specific form of the disorder.[4] The prevalence of disorder of written expression is estimated to be of a similar frequency to other learning disorders, between 3 - 5%.[citation needed] A diagnosis can be made based on results of several assessments.[5]
| Disorder of written expression | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Example of handwriting in an adult with dysgraphia, a disorder of written expression. | |
| Specialty | Neurology |
Signs and symptoms edit
Causes edit
Specific causes of this disorder are unknown. The interaction of physical, psychological, and environmental factors is thought to contribute to the disorder of written expression. In neuropsychological and neurobiological research, some studies show evidence that abnormally high testosterone levels and abnormalities in cognitive processes (visual-motor, linguistic, attentional, and memory) are thought to play a role in learning disorder cases. The impact of brain injuries in both children and adults can impair any of these cognitive processes.[5]
Other disabilities edit
Diagnosis edit
- Oral and Written Language Scales (OWLS)
- Test of Adolescent and Adult Language–3 (TOAL-3)
- Test of Early Written Language
- Test of Written Expression (TOWE)
- Test of Written Language–3 (TOWL-3)
- Woodcock Johnson Psychoeducational Battery–Revised, Tests of Achievement
- Weschler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT)
Treatment edit
Although disorder for written expressions skills can be difficult and an enduring problem all throughout childhood into adulthood, different types of treatment and support can help individuals who have this disorder to employ strategies and skills in the home and school environment. This includes remedial education tailored to improve specific skills, providing special academic services in the learning environment, and addressing concurrent health and mental issues. It is sometimes necessary to foster motivational techniques to maintain motivation and minimize negative thoughts or feelings. Using whatever modifications are necessary to overcome fears of failure in the early stages of writing mediation is strongly encouraged because children with learning disabilities often experience low self-esteem and confidence, which may further interfere with learning and academic success.[9]
References edit
- ^ "A 15 Disorder of Written Expression". American Psychiatric Association DSM-5 Development. American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
- ^ "Disorder of Written Expression". Psych Central. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
- ^ "Written Expression Learning Disorder (Overview)". Medscape Reference. WebMD LLC. 28 January 2022.
- ^ Dimauro, G.; Bevilacqua, V.; Colizzi, L.; Pierro, D. Di (2020). "TestGraphia, a Software System for the Early Diagnosis of Dysgraphia". IEEE Access. 8: 19564–19575. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2968367. ISSN 2169-3536.
- ^ a b "Written Expression Learning Disorder (Presentation)". Medscape Reference. WebMD LLC. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
- ^ "Disorder of Written Expression". Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders. Advameg, Inc. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
- ^ "Written Expression Learning Disorder (Workup)". Medscape Reference. WebMD LLC. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
- ^ Wheeler, L., Nickerson, S., Long, K., & Silver, R. (2014). Expressive writing in people with traumatic brain injury and learning disability. Neurorehabilitation, 34(1), 29-37. doi:10.3233/NRE-131007
- ^ "Written Expression Learning Disorder (Treatment)". Medscape Reference. WebMD LLC. Retrieved 2 April 2012.