From 1989, Hungary's top foreign policy goal was achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations. Hungary joined the Partnership for Peace program in 1994 and has actively supported the IFOR and SFOR missions in Bosnia. Hungary also improved its often frosty neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with Ukraine, Slovakia, and Romania. These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Romania, Slovakia and Ukraine periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare up. Hungary since 1989 has signed all of the OSCE documents, and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in 1997. Hungary's record of implementing CSCEHelsinki Final Act provisions, including those on the reunification of divided families, remains among the best in Central and Eastern Europe.
Except for the short-lived neutrality declared by the anti-Soviet leader Imre Nagy in November 1956, Hungary's foreign policy generally followed the Soviet lead from 1947 to 1989. During the Communist period, Hungary maintained treaties of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Romania, and Bulgaria. It was one of the founding members of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact and Comecon, and it was the first country to withdraw from those organizations. After 1989, Hungary oriented more towards the West, joining NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004. In 2010, Hungary initiated its Eastern Opening Policy, marking a commitment to enhancing relations with nations in the global East.[3]
Overviewedit
As with any country, Hungarian security attitudes are shaped largely by history and geography. For Hungary, this is a history of more than 400 years of domination by great powers—the Ottomans, the Habsburg dynasty, the Germans during World War II, and the Soviets during the Cold War—and a geography of regional instability and separation from Hungarian minorities living in neighboring countries. Hungary's foreign policy priorities, largely consistent since 1990, represent a direct response to these factors. From 1990, Hungary's top foreign policy goal was achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations. Hungary joined the Partnership for Peace program in 1994 and has actively supported the IFOR and SFOR missions in Bosnia. The Horn government achieved Hungary's most important foreign policy successes of the post-communist era by securing invitations to join both NATO and the European Union in 1997. Hungary became a member of NATO in 1999,[6] and a member of the EU in 2004.[7]
Hungary also has improved its often frosty neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine. These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Slovakia and Romania periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare up. Hungary was a signatory to the Helsinki Final Act in 1975, has signed all of the CSCE/OSCE follow-on documents since 1989, and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in 1997. Hungary's record of implementing CSCE Helsinki Final Act provisions, including those on the reunification of divided families, remains among the best in eastern Europe. Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since December 1955.
This involves Hungary and Czechoslovakia, and was agreed on September 16, 1977 ("Budapest Treaty"). The treaty envisioned a cross-border barrage system between the towns Gabčíkovo, Czechoslovakia and Nagymaros, Hungary. After an intensive campaign, the project became widely hated as a symbol of the old communist regime. In 1989 the Hungarian government decided to suspend it. In its sentence from September 1997, the International Court of Justice stated that both sides breached their obligation and that the 1977 Budapest Treaty is still valid. In 1998 the Slovak government turned to the International Court, demanding the Nagymaros part to be built. The international dispute was partially solved in 2017.
On March 19, 2008, Hungary recognized Kosovo as an independent country.[8]
A number of Hungarian anthropologists and linguists have long had an interest in the Turkic peoples, fueled by the eastern origin of the Hungarians' ancestors.[14] The Hungarian ethnomusicologist Bence Szabolcsi explained this motivation as follows: "Hungarians are the outermost branch leaning this way from age-old tree of the great Asian musical culture rooted in the souls of a variety of peoples living from China through Central Asia to the Black Sea".[15]
Since the political transformation in 1990, Hungary has prioritized its diplomatic engagements with the Turkic world.[16] in 2018, Hungary became an observer within the Organisation of Turkic States, underscoring a deepened engagement in regional cooperation.[17]
Diplomatic relationsedit
List of countries which Hungary maintains diplomatic relations with (all UN member states except Bhutan and Vanuatu):
Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1864, during the time of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Diplomatic relations were established between Hungary and Mexico in 1925 and were suspended in 1941. They were re-established on 14 May 1974.
Normal bilateral relations between Hungary and the U.S. were resumed in December 1945 when a U.S. ambassador was appointed and the embassy was re-opened.
Officials from Hungary regularly visit China on trade missions, a factor that helped enable the buyout of distressed Hungarian chemical maker Borsodchem by the Chinese company Wanhua Industrial Group.[194]
The establishment of diplomatic relations between Hungary and the Republic of Korea began on 1 February 1989.
Hungary and South Korea have good relations.
Permanent missions between the two countries were announced during the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. The announcement made Hungary the first Eastern Bloc country to exchange ambassadors with South Korea.
Sri Lanka has an embassy in Vienna, Austria that is accredited to Hungary[214] and has an honorary consulate in Budapest[215] Hungary maintains an honorary consulate in Colombo, Sri Lanka.[216] Hungary contributed to relief after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, and has since stepped up aid to Sri Lanka.[217]
Turkey has an embassy in Budapest[223] and an honorary consulate in Keszthely.
Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the OECD, the NATO, the OSCE and the WTO. Also, Hungary is an EUmember and Turkey is a candidate. Hungary supports Turkey's accession negotiations to the EU, although negotiations have now been suspended. Hungary is also an observer nation in the Turkic Council.
Both countries have historical ties dating back to the 16th century. Hungary hosts a number of Ottoman-era monuments in cities such as Budapest, Eger, and Pécs.
Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Hungary
Austrian-Hungarian relations are the neighborly relations between Austria and Hungary, two member states of the European Union. Both countries have a long common history since the ruling dynasty of Austria, the Habsburgs, inherited the Hungarian throne in the 16th century. Both have been part of the now-defunct Austro-Hungarian Monarchy from 1867 to 1918. The two countries established diplomatic relations in 1921, after their separation.
Austria has an embassy in Budapest.
Hungary has an embassy in Vienna and a consulate-general in Innsbruck.
Hungary recognised Finland on August 23, 1920. Finland recognised Hungary on September 10, 1920.
Finland broke off diplomatic relations on September 20, 1944.
Diplomatic relations were re-established on May 20, 1947.
Both national languages, Finnish and Hungarian, are Uralic languages, which has led to cultural exchange albeit at a much smaller scale compared to the third major Uralic-speaking country, Estonia.
Finland has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Pécs.[231]
The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (today Lombardy, Veneto, South Tyrol, Trentino and Friuli-Venezia Giulia in Italy) and Hungary were crownlands of the Austrian Empire.
Both countries legalized homosexuality while opposing same-sex marriages, and outlawed LGBT propaganda towards minors since 2013 (Russia) and 2021 (Hungary) respectively.
Both countries have an ethnic minority from the other state: in Hungary there are around 3,000 Ethnic Slovenes, and in Slovenia there are around 7,713 Ethnic Hungarians.
New Zealand is accredited to Hungary from its embassy in Rome, Italy and maintains an honorary consulate in Budapest.
Foreign criticismedit
In December 2010, the Fidesz government adopted a press and media law which threatens fines on media that engage in "unbalanced coverage".[260] The law aroused criticism in the European Union as possibly "a direct threat to democracy".[260]
In 2013, the government adopted a new constitution that modified several aspects of the institutional and legal framework in Hungary. These changes have been criticized by the Council of Europe, the European Union and Human Rights Watch as possibly undermining the rule of law and human rights protection.[261]
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Further readingedit
Borhi, László, "In the Power Arena: U.S.-Hungarian Relations, 1942–1989," The Hungarian Quarterly (Budapest), 51 (Summer 2010), pp 67–81.
Glant, Tibor, "Ninety Years of United States-Hungarian Relations," Eger Journal of American Studies, 13 (2012), pp 163–83.
Hornyak, Arpad. Hungarian-Yugoslav Diplomatic Relations, 1918–1927 (East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press; 2013) 426 pages.
Niklasson, Tomas. "Regime stability and foreign policy change: interaction between domestic and foreign policy in Hungary 1956-1994" (PhD dissertation Lund University, 2006) online.
Váli, Ferenc A, "The Foreign Policy of Hungary" in Kuhlman, James A (ed.), The Foreign Policies of Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Determinants (Sijthoff, Leyden, 1978).