Hualca Hualca forms a volcanic complex with the two southerly volcanoes Sabancaya and Ampato. It is older (Pliocene-Pleistocene) and more heavily eroded than these two volcanoes; they are all constructed on Neogeneignimbrites, one of which was dated to 2.2 ± 1.5 million years ago.[15] The volcano has erupted andesitic lava flows; one series of such flows exceeds a thickness of 0.5 kilometres (0.31 mi).[16] Volcanic rocks of Hualca Hualca contain phenocrysts of biotite, clinopyroxene, hornblende, orthopyroxene, plagioclase and sphene. The magma probably originated through mixing processes, similar to Sabancaya.[5]
Sector collapseedit
The northern flank of Hualca Hualca underwent a large sector collapse between 1.36 and 0.61 million years ago,[16] opening up a collapse amphitheatre[17] and forming a lake in the Colca valley which later catastrophically failed.[16] This lake has left lacustrine deposits in the Colca Valley.[18] Eruptions within the collapse amphitheatre generated lava flows which then formed volcanic dams in the Colca Valley.[19]Lava domes and pyroclastic flows also originated within the collapse scar.[5] Earthquakes and hydrothermal alteration probably caused the onset of the collapse event.[18]
Glaciationedit
The volcano was glaciated during the last ice age, between 18,000 and 11,500 years ago.[20] This glaciation has left moraines, rock glaciers and roches moutonees.[18] The glaciers on Hualca Hualca have retreated since then, one was reported to have disappeared by 2000.[21]Snowmelt and runoff from Hualca Hualca are sources of water for the Colca Canyon, supporting irrigated agriculture there; the mountain is worshipped by local inhabitants, who according to reports in 1586 believed that their ancestors come from it.[22]
Recent activityedit
Hualca Hualca is considered to be an extinct volcano;[14] however at least seven vents on its southwestern flank show evidence of Holocene activity.[18] Satellite images in the early 21st century found that Hualca Hualca is inflating from a depth of 13–11 kilometres (8.1–6.8 mi) at a rate of 2 centimetres per year (0.79 in/year). This deformation may be associated with the neighbouring volcano Sabancaya which is active; magma chambers of volcanoes are sometimes distant from the actual volcano as was the case with Katmai.[23] The inflation ceased after 1997.[24] At Pinchollo in the collapse scar three geysers were active in the past; one is still active as of 2013[update] and is named Infiernillo.[17] The activity of the hydrothermal system at Hualca Hualca increased beginning in 2016, an increase linked to eruptions of Sabancaya and earthquakes.[25]
Climbing and first ascentedit
Hualca Hualca can be climbed in a few days from the village of Pinchollo by the north side.[26] It was first climbed by Richard R. Culbert from Canada on 6 April 1966. Evidence of pre-Columbian ascents possibly from Incans, such as coca leaves and a puma skin, was found near the summit. Some reports show Piero Ghiglione and P. Chavez reaching the summit on 23 August 1950, however this was a secondary summit.[1]
^ abcdBurkett, B. (1 December 2005). "Volcanism at Hualca Hualca Volcano, Southern Peru". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. 53: V53B–1552. Bibcode:2005AGUFM.V53B1552B.
^ abPeru 1:100 000, Chivay (32-s). IGN (Instituto Geográfico Nacional – Perú). as Nevado Hualca Hualca
^Radio San Gabriel, "Instituto Radiofonico de Promoción Aymara" (IRPA) 1993, Republicado por Instituto de las Lenguas y Literaturas Andinas-Amazónicas (ILLLA-A) 2011, Transcripción del Vocabulario de la Lengua Aymara, P. Ludovico Bertonio 1612 (Spanish-Aymara-Aymara-Spanish dictionary)
^Teofilo Laime Ajacopa (2007). Diccionario Bilingüe: Iskay simipi yuyayk’anch: Quechua – Castellano / Castellano – Quechua(PDF). La Paz, Bolivia: futatraw.ourproject.org.
^USGS, EROS Archive. "USGS EROS Archive - Digital Elevation - SRTM Coverage Maps". Retrieved 12 April 2020.
^ ab"ASTER GDEM Project". ssl.jspacesystems.or.jp. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
^TanDEM-X, TerraSAR-X. "Copernicus Space Component Data Access". Retrieved 12 April 2020.
^"Andean Mountains - All above 5000m". Andes Specialists. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
^ abThouret, Jean-Claude; Rivera, Marco; Wörner, Gerhard; Gerbe, Marie-Christine; Finizola, Anthony; Fornari, Michel; Gonzales, Katherine (1 July 2005). "Ubinas: the evolution of the historically most active volcano in southern Peru" (PDF). Bulletin of Volcanology. 67 (6): 557–589. Bibcode:2005BVol...67..557T. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0396-0. ISSN 0258-8900. S2CID 129294486.
^Gerbe, Marie-Christine; Thouret, Jean-Claude (1 August 2004). "Role of magma mixing in the petrogenesis of tephra erupted during the 1990–98 explosive activity of Nevado Sabancaya, southern Peru". Bulletin of Volcanology. 66 (6): 541–561. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0340-3. ISSN 0258-8900. S2CID 128592747.
^ abcZerathe, Swann; Lacroix, Pascal; Jongmans, Denis; Marino, Jersy; Taipe, Edu; Wathelet, Marc; Pari, Walter; Smoll, Lionel Fidel; Norabuena, Edmundo (15 September 2016). "Morphology, structure and kinematics of a rainfall controlled slow‐moving Andean landslide, Peru". Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 41 (11): 1477–1493. Bibcode:2016ESPL...41.1477Z. doi:10.1002/esp.3913. ISSN 1096-9837. S2CID 130282743.
^ abCiesielczuk, Justyna; Żaba, Jerzy; Bzowska, Grażyna; Gaidzik, Krzysztof; Głogowska, Magdalena (March 2013). "Sulphate efflorescences at the geyser near Pinchollo, southern Peru". Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 42: 186–193. Bibcode:2013JSAES..42..186C. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2012.06.016.
^ abcdAlcalá-Reygosa, Jesús; Palacios, David; Orozco, José Juan Zamorano (19 October 2016). "Geomorphology of the Ampato volcanic complex (Southern Peru)". Journal of Maps. 12 (5): 1160–1169. Bibcode:2016JMaps..12.1160A. doi:10.1080/17445647.2016.1142479.
^Silva, SL de; Francis, P. W. (1 March 1990). "Potentially active volcanoes of Peru-Observations using Landsat Thematic Mapper and Space Shuttle imagery". Bulletin of Volcanology. 52 (4): 286–301. Bibcode:1990BVol...52..286D. doi:10.1007/BF00304100. ISSN 0258-8900. S2CID 140559785.
^Alcalá, Jesus; Palacios, David; Vazquez, Lorenzo; Juan Zamorano, Jose (1 April 2015). "Timing of maximum glacial extent and deglaciation from HualcaHualca volcano (southern Peru), obtained with cosmogenic 36Cl". EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts. 17: 12930. Bibcode:2015EGUGA..1712930A.
^Alcalá, Jesus; Palacios, David; Juan Zamorano, Jose (1 April 2015). "Reconstruction of glacial changes on HualcaHualca volcano (southern Peru) from the Maximum Glacier Extent to present". EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts. 17: 13492. Bibcode:2015EGUGA..1713492A.
^Boelens, Rutgerd; Gelles, Paul H. (1 July 2005). "Cultural Politics, Communal Resistance and Identity in Andean Irrigation Development". Bulletin of Latin American Research. 24 (3): 311–327. doi:10.1111/j.0261-3050.2005.00137.x. ISSN 1470-9856.
^Pritchard, Matthew E.; Simons, Mark (11 July 2002). "A satellite geodetic survey of large-scale deformation of volcanic centres in the central Andes". Nature. 418 (6894): 167–171. Bibcode:2002Natur.418..167P. doi:10.1038/nature00872. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 12110886. S2CID 4342717.
^Pritchard, Matthew E.; Simons, Mark (2004). "Surveying Volcanic Arcs with Satellite Radar Interferometry" (PDF). GSA Today. 14 (8): 4. doi:10.1130/1052-5173(2004)014<4:svawsr>2.0.co;2.