Northeastern Neo-Aramaic

Summary

Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) is a grouping of related dialects of Neo-Aramaic spoken before World War I as a vernacular language by Jews and Assyrian Christians between the Tigris and Lake Urmia, stretching north to Lake Van and southwards to Mosul and Kirkuk. As a result of the Assyrian genocide, Christian speakers were forced out of the area that is now Turkey and in the early 1950s most Jewish speakers moved to Israel. The Kurdish-Turkish conflict resulted in further dislocations of speaker populations.[1][2] As of the 1990s, the NENA group had an estimated number of fluent speakers among the Assyrians just below 500,000, spread throughout the Middle East and the Assyrian diaspora. In 2007, linguist Geoffrey Khan wrote that many dialects were nearing extinction with fluent speakers difficult to find.[1]

Northeastern Neo-Aramaic
NENA
Geographic
distribution
Traditionally spoken northeast to the plain of Urmia in Iran, southeast to the plain of Mosul in Iraq, southwest to Al-Hasakah Governorate in Syria and as northwest as Tur Abdin in Turkey. Diaspora speakers in North America, Europe and Israel (the Jewish dialects).
Linguistic classificationAfro-Asiatic
Subdivisions
Language codes
Glottolognort3241

The other branches of Neo-Aramaic are Western Neo-Aramaic, Central Neo-Aramaic (Turoyo and Mlahso), and Mandaic.[1] Some linguists classify NENA as well as Turoyo and Mlahso as a single dialect continuum.[3]

Influences

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The NENA languages contain a large number of loanwords and some grammatical features from the extinct East Semitic Akkadian language of Mesopotamia (the original language of the Assyrians) and also in more modern times from their surrounding languages: Kurdish, Arabic, Persian, Azerbaijani and Turkish language. These languages are spoken by both Jews and Christian Assyrians from the area. Each variety of NENA is clearly Jewish or Assyrian.

However, not all varieties of one or other religious groups are intelligible with all others of the group. Likewise, in some places Jews and Assyrian Christians from the same locale speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Aramaic, where in other places their language is quite similar. The differences can be explained by the fact that NENA communities gradually became isolated into small groups spread over a wide area, and some had to be highly mobile due to various ethnic and religious persecutions.

The influence of classical Aramaic varieties – Syriac on Christian varieties and Targumic on Jewish communities – gives a dual heritage that further distinguishes language by faith. Many of the Jewish speakers of NENA varieties, the Kurdish Jews, now live in Israel, where Neo-Aramaic is endangered by the dominance of Modern Hebrew. Many Christian NENA speakers, who usually are Assyrian, are in diaspora in North America, Europe, Australia, the Caucasus and elsewhere, although indigenous communities remain in northern Iraq, south east Turkey, north east Syria and north west Iran, an area roughly comprising what had been ancient Assyria.[4]

Grouping

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Red markers represent Christian Neo-Aramaic varieties while blue represents Jewish ones and purple represents both spoken in the same town.

SIL Ethnologue assigns ISO codes to twelve NENA varieties, two of them extinct:

List of dialects

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Below is a full list of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic dialects from the North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Database Project (as of 2023):[6]

Dialect Religion Country Region
Sulemaniyya, Jewish Jewish   Iraq NE
Qaraqosh (Baghdede) Christian   Iraq NW
Tisqopa Christian   Iraq NW
Aradhin, Christian Christian   Iraq NW
Karəmlesh Christian   Iraq NW
Derabun Christian   Iraq NW
Ankawa Christian   Iraq NE
Billin Christian   Turkey SE
Ashitha Christian   Turkey SE
Umra d-Shish Christian   Iraq NW
Baṭnaya Christian   Iraq NW
Sanandaj, Jewish Jewish   Iran W
Shōsh-u-Sharmən Christian   Iraq NW
Alqosh Christian   Iraq NW
Peshabur Christian   Iraq NW
Koy Sanjaq, Jewish Jewish   Iraq NE
Arbel Jewish   Iraq NE
Bēṣpən Christian   Turkey SE
Mēr Christian   Turkey SE
Išši Christian   Turkey SE
Baznaye Christian   Turkey SE
Gaznax Christian   Turkey SE
Harbole Christian   Turkey SE
Hertevin (Artun) Christian   Turkey SE
Sardarid Christian   Iran NW
Bohtan Christian   Turkey SE
Sanandaj, Christian Christian   Iran W
Rustaqa Jewish   Iraq NE
Dobe Jewish   Iraq NW
Ruwanduz Jewish   Iraq NE
Saqǝz Jewish   Iran W
Telkepe Christian   Iraq NW
Iṣṣin Christian   Iraq NW
Mar-Yaqo Christian   Iraq NW
Tən Christian   Iraq NW
Barzan Jewish   Iraq NW
Betanure Jewish   Iraq NW
Shǝnno Jewish   Iran NW
Bokan Jewish   Iran W
Amedia, Jewish Jewish   Iraq NW
Zakho, Christian Christian   Iraq NW
Zakho, Jewish Jewish   Iraq NW
Urmi, Jewish Jewish   Iran NW
Diyana-Zariwaw Christian   Iraq NE
Sablagh Jewish   Iran W
Jilu Christian   Turkey SE
Challək Christian   Iraq NW
Darband Christian   Iran NW
Bebede Christian   Iraq NW
Dere Christian   Iraq NW
Nargəzine-Xarjawa Christian   Iraq NW
Aqra (Xərpa) Christian   Iraq NW
Aqra (town) Christian   Iraq NW
Xarjawa Christian   Iraq NW
Mangesh Christian   Iraq NW
Bidaro Christian   Iraq NW
Hamziye Christian   Iraq NW
Gargarnaye Christian   Turkey SE
Barwar Christian   Iraq NW
Nerwa, Jewish Jewish   Iraq NW
Salamas, Christian Christian   Iran NW
Bne Lagippa Christian   Turkey SE
Kerend Jewish   Iran W
Koy Sanjaq, Christian Christian   Iraq NE
Tikab Jewish   Iran W
Qarah Ḥasan Jewish   Iran W
Bijar Jewish   Iran W
Bariṭle Christian   Iraq NW
Baqopa Christian   Iraq NW
Sharanish Christian   Iraq NW
Zawitha Christian   Iraq NW
Solduz Jewish   Iran NW
Sulemaniyya, Christian Christian   Iraq NE
Ḥalabja Jewish   Iraq NE
Xanaqin Jewish   Iraq NE
Qaladeze Jewish   Iraq NE
Nerwa, Christian Christian   Iraq NW
Meze Christian   Iraq NW
Shaqlawa, Christian Christian   Iraq NE
Hassana Christian   Turkey SE
Marga Christian   Iraq NW
Bersive Christian   Iraq NW
Qarawilla Christian   Iraq NW
Challa, Jewish Jewish   Turkey SE
Sāt Christian   Turkey SE
Bāz (Maha Xtaya) Christian   Turkey SE
Ṭāl Christian   Turkey SE
Sarspido (duplicate?) Christian   Turkey SE
Van Christian   Turkey SE
Halana Christian   Turkey SE
Bnerumta (Upper Tiyari) Christian   Turkey SE
Tel Tamməṛ (Upper Tiyari) Christian   Turkey SE
Walṭo (Upper Tiyari) Christian   Turkey SE
Sarspido (Lower Tiyari) Christian   Turkey SE
Halmun Christian   Turkey SE
Txuma Gawaya Christian   Turkey SE
Txuma Mazṛa Christian   Turkey SE
Txuma Gudəkθa Christian   Turkey SE
Txuma Gəssa Christian   Turkey SE
Txuma Bərəjnaye Christian   Turkey SE
Arbuš Christian
Bāz (Khabur) Christian   Turkey SE
Dīz Christian   Turkey SE
Jilu (Khabur) Christian   Turkey SE
Šamməsdin Nočiya Christian   Turkey SE
Šamməsdin Iyyəl Christian   Turkey SE
Šamməsdin Marbišo Christian   Turkey SE
Barwar of Qočanəṣ Christian   Turkey SE
Gawar, Christian Christian   Turkey SE
Qočanəṣ Christian   Turkey SE
Van (Timur, Khabur) Christian   Turkey SE
Saṛa (Khabur) Christian   Turkey SE
Saṛa (Armenia) Christian   Georgia,   Armenia
Lewən Christian   Turkey SE
Urmi, Christian Christian   Iran NW
Bne ~ Mne Maθa (Lower Tiyari) Christian   Turkey SE
Bne ~ Mne Belaθa (Upper Tiyari) Christian   Turkey SE
Bāz (Aruntus) Christian   Turkey SE
Mawana Christian   Iran NW
Gawilan Christian   Iran NW
Salamas, Jewish Jewish   Iran NW
Komane Christian   Iraq NW
Derəgni Christian   Iraq NW
Bədyəl Christian   Iraq NE
Enəške Christian   Iraq NW
Təlla Christian   Iraq NW
Darbandoke Christian   Iraq NE
Shiyuz Christian   Iraq NW
Qasr Shirin Jewish   Iran W
Bāz (Shwawa) Christian   Turkey SE
Bāz (Aghgab) Christian   Turkey SE
Shahe Jewish   Iraq NW
Bəjil Jewish   Iraq NW
Umra Christian   Turkey SE
Gargarnaye (Azran) Christian   Turkey SE
Dohok, Jewish Jewish   Iraq NW
Jənnet Christian   Turkey SE
Hoz Christian   Turkey SE
Harmashe Christian   Iraq NW
Dohok, Christian Christian   Iraq NW
Hawdiyan Christian   Iraq NE
Aradhin, Jewish Jewish   Iraq NW
Azax Christian   Iraq NW
Bāz (Rekan) Christian   Iraq NW
Yarda Christian   Iraq NW
Alanish Christian   Iraq NW
Gzira Jewish   Turkey SE
Gawar, Jewish Jewish   Turkey SE
Dawadiya Christian   Iraq NW
Challa, Christian Christian   Turkey SE
Nəxla (Gerbish) Christian   Iraq NW
Nəxla (Dinarta) Christian   Iraq NW
Nuhawa Christian   Iraq NW
Nəxla (Sanaye) Christian   Iraq NW
Sandu Jewish   Iraq NW
Shaqlawa, Jewish Jewish   Iraq NE
Dehe Christian   Iraq NW
Gramun Christian   Turkey SE
Tazacand Christian   Iran NW
Amedia, Christian Christian   Iraq NW

References

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  1. ^ a b c Khan, G. (1 January 2007). "The North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects". Journal of Semitic Studies. 52 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1093/jss/fgl034.
  2. ^ Bird, Isabella, Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan, including a summer in the Upper Karun region and a visit to the Nestorian rayahs, London: J. Murray, 1891, vol. ii, pp. 282 and 306
  3. ^ Kim, Ronald (2008). ""Stammbaum" or Continuum? The Subgrouping of Modern Aramaic Dialects Reconsidered". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 128 (3): 505–531. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 25608409.
  4. ^ Heinrichs, Wolfhart (ed.) (1990). Studies in Neo-Aramaic. Scholars Press: Atlanta, Georgia. ISBN 1-55540-430-8.
  5. ^ Lewis, M. Paul; Gary F. Simons; Charles D. Fennig, eds. (2015). "Assyrian Neo-Aramaic". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (18th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
  6. ^ Khan, Geoffrey. "Dialects". The North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Database Project. Retrieved 2023-10-07.

Sources

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  • Coghill, Eleanor. "Some notable features in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic dialects of Iraq". Neo-Aramaic Dialect Studies. Gorgias Press. pp. 91–104. ISBN 978-1-4632-1161-5.
  • Fox, Samuel Ethan (1994). "The Relationships of the Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 114 (2): 154–162. doi:10.2307/605827. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 605827.
  • Fox, Samuel Ethan (2008). "North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic and the Middle Aramaic Dialects". Neo-Aramaic Dialect Studies. Gorgias Press. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-1-4632-1161-5.
  • Gutman, Ariel (2018). Attributive constructions in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic. Language Science Press. ISBN 978-3-96110-081-1.
  • Khan, Geoffrey (2007). "Grammatical borrowing in North-eastern Neo-Aramaic". Empirical Approaches to Language Typology [EALT]. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 197–214. doi:10.1515/9783110199192.197. ISBN 978-3-11-019919-2.
  • Khan, Geoffrey (2012). "North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic". The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 708–724. ISBN 978-3-11-025158-6.
  • Khan, Geoffrey; Napiorkowska, Lidia, eds. (2015). Neo-Aramaic in Its Linguistic Context. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-4632-0410-5.
  • Khan, Geoffrey (2018). "Remarks on the Historical Development and Syntax of the Copula in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects". Aramaic Studies. 16 (2): 234–269. doi:10.1163/17455227-01602010. S2CID 195503300.
  • Khan, Geoffrey (2020). "The Perfect in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic". Perfects in Indo-European Languages and Beyond. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-6090-1.
  • Khan, Geoffrey; Noorlander, Paul, eds. (2021). Studies in the Grammar and Lexicon of Neo-Aramaic. Semitic Languages and Cultures. Vol. 5. Open Book Publishers. doi:10.11647/OBP.0209. ISBN 978-1-78374-952-2. S2CID 231785174.
  • Ragagnin, Elisabetta (2020). "Some Notes on Turkic and Mongolic Elements in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Varieties". Eine hundertblättrige Tulpe - Bir ṣadbarg lāla. De Gruyter. pp. 361–371. ISBN 978-3-11-220924-0.
  • Mutzafi, Hezy (2005). "Etymological Notes on North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic". Aramaic Studies. 3 (1): 83–107. doi:10.1177/1477835105053516.
  • Mutzafi, Hezy (2006). "On the Etymology of Some Enigmatic Words in North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic". Aramaic Studies. 4 (1): 83–99. doi:10.1177/1477835106066037.
  • Mutzafi, Hezy (2018). "Folk Etymology in the North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Dialects". Aramaic Studies. 16 (2): 215–233. doi:10.1163/17455227-01602007. S2CID 195509710.
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  • The North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic Database Project by Geoffrey Khan et al. (University of Cambridge)