Paja Formation

Summary

The Paja Formation (Spanish: Formación Paja, K1p, Kip, Kimp, b3b6p) is an Early Cretaceous geologic formation of central Colombia. The formation extends across the northern part of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, the Western Colombian emerald belt and surrounding areas of the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes. In the subsurface, the formation is found in the Middle Magdalena Valley to the west. The Paja Formation stretches across four departments, from north to south the southernmost Bolívar Department, in Santander, Boyacá and the northern part of Cundinamarca. Well known fossiliferous outcrops of the formation occur near Villa de Leyva, also written as Villa de Leiva, and neighboring Sáchica.

Paja Formation
Stratigraphic range: Late Hauterivian-Late Aptian
~130–113 Ma
Desmatochelys padillai from the Paja Formation
TypeGeological formation
Sub-unitsLutitas Negras Inferiores, Arcillolitas Abigarradas & Arcillolitas con Nódulos Huecos Members
UnderliesSan Gil Group, Simití & Tablazo Formations
OverliesRitoque & Rosablanca Formations
Area450 km (280 mi)
Thicknessup to 940 m (3,080 ft)
Lithology
PrimaryBlack shale, claystone, sandstone and limestone concretions
OtherGypsum, chalcopyrite, galena, malachite, pyrite, sphalerite
Location
Coordinates5°30′N 73°30′W / 5.5°N 73.5°W / 5.5; -73.5
Approximate paleocoordinates3°42′N 42°12′W / 3.7°N 42.2°W / 3.7; -42.2
RegionBolívar, Boyacá, Cundinamarca & Santander
Country Colombia
ExtentAltiplano Cundiboyacense
Eastern Ranges, Andes
Middle Magdalena Valley
Type section
Named forQuebrada La Paja
Named byWheeler
Year defined1929?
Coordinates7°01′33.4″N 73°19′27.8″W / 7.025944°N 73.324389°W / 7.025944; -73.324389
RegionBetulia, Santander
Thickness at type section625 m (2,051 ft)

Outcrops of the Paja Formation near Villa de Leyva

The formation was named after Quebrada La Paja in Betulia, Santander, and stretches across 450 kilometres (280 mi) from northeast to southwest. The Paja Formation overlies the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations and is overlain by the San Gil Group and the Simití and Tablazo Formations and dates from the late Hauterivian to late Aptian. The Paja Formation comprises mudstones, shales and nodules of sandstones and limestones, deposited in an anoxic environment, in the warm and shallow sea that covered large parts of the present Colombian territory during the Cretaceous.

Initially considered to host Colombian emeralds, the emerald-bearing part was redefined as a separate formation; the Muzo Formation. The Paja Formation Lagerstätte[1] is famous for its vertebrate fossils and is the richest Mesozoic fossiliferous formation of Colombia. Several marine reptile fossils of plesiosaurs, pliosaurs, ichthyosauras and turtles have been described from the formation and it hosts the only dinosaur fossils described in the country to date; Padillasaurus. The formation also has provided many ammonites, fossil flora, decapods and the fossil shark Protolamna ricaurtei.

Description edit

The Paja Formation was first described by O.C. Wheeler, according to Morales (1958),[2] and named after Quebrada La Paja, a tributary of the Sogamoso River. The type section is exposed on the northern banks of the quebrada at the confluence of the Sogamoso River in Betulia, Santander.[3][4]

The formation is divided into the Lutitas Negras Inferiores, Arcillolitas Abigarradas and Arcillolitas con Nódulos Huecos Members, and stretches across 450 kilometres (280 mi) from northeast to southwest. The Paja Formation overlies the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations and is overlain by the Simití and Tablazo Formations and dates from the Hauterivian to Late Aptian.

Outcrops edit

 
 
class=notpageimage|
Type locality of the Paja Formation in Santander

The type section of the Paja Formation is found at the banks of Quebrada La Paja in Betulia, Santander, where the formation has a thickness of 625 metres (2,051 ft).[5] Outcrops of the formation extend from Simití in the north, close to the border of Santander and Bolívar, where the formation is offset by the Simití Fault,[6] to the Pauna Anticlinal in San Pablo de Borbur, where the formation is thrusted over the Ritoque Formation in the south.[7] In the southern extension of the exposures, the formation crops out in the north of Tununguá, near the Ibacapí Fault.[8]

Santander

In the Middle Magdalena Valley, south of Barrancabermeja, the Paja Formation in the subsurface is offset by the Casabe, Infantas and Arruga Faults.[9] In the northeastern extent, in Río Negro, near the border with Norte de Santander, the formation is found in the subsurface, offset by the Lebríja Fault.[10] The town center of Zapatoca rests on the formation in the synclinal named after the village.[4] The Paja Formation also crops out in the northwestern part of the Middle Magdalena Valley, east of San Pablo, Bolívar, where in the formation underlies the Simití Formation and is offset in the subsurface by the Pozo Azul and Caña Braval Faults.[11] South of there, the Paja Formation is offset by the La Corcovada and El Guineal Faults,[12] and the regional La Salina Fault.[13] Near the eponymous town, the formation is offset by the Landazurí Fault.[14]

West of Barichara, the formation underlies the corregimiento Guane, Barichara [es] and is found in the hills bordering both sides of the Suárez River.[15] In this area, the Paja Formation is offset by the Suárez Fault.[16] Surrounding Jordán, Santander, the formation crops out on both sides of the Chicamocha River in the Chicamocha Canyon. The touristic town San Gil rests on the formation and the Fonce River cuts into it. East of the town center, the formation is offset by the Curití and Ocamonte Faults.[15] The urban centers of Oiba, San Benito, Encino, Ocamonte and Charalá are built on top of the Paja Formation. In this area, the formation is offset by the Confines and Encino Faults.[17] Further to the south, the towns of Vélez, Guavatá and Jesús María rest on the formation. West of the latter, the Paja Formation is put in a reverse faulted contact with the Cumbre Formation.[18] The El Carmen Fault puts the Paja Formation in contact with the Jurassic Girón Formation.[16]

Boyacá
 
 
class=notpageimage|
Fossiliferous outcrops near Villa de Leyva on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense

In northeastern Boyacá, the formation underlies the urban center of Moniquirá (not to be confused with Monquirá, a vereda of nearby Villa de Leyva) and is crossed by the Moniquirá River.[18] West of Arcabuco in the Villa de Leyva Synclinal, the formation is cut by the Arcabuco River.[19] In the vicinity of Pauna and San Pablo de Borbur, the formation crops out in an extensive area. Here, the Paja Formation is offset by the Río Minero and Pedro Gómez Faults and occurs in the footwall of the La Venta Fault.[20] North of Lake Fúquene, the town centers of Tinjacá and Sutamarchán are built on top of the Paja Formation. In this area, the formation extends into the northern part of Cundinamarca,[7] where the urban centers of Yacopí and La Palma rest on the formation.[21]

Villa de Leyva edit

Surrounding the touristic town of Villa de Leyva, the formation crops out in the hills in a microclimatic location, known as the La Candelaria Desert (Spanish: Desierto de La Candelaria), stretching across Villa de Leyva, Santa Sofía and Sáchica.[7][22] Along the highway Tunja-Villa de Leyva, the formation is heavily folded and faulted along a stretch of 500 metres (1,600 ft).[23] In the vicinity of Villa de Leyva, the formation has provided many fossils of marine reptiles, as well as the dinosaur Padillasaurus.

Stratigraphy edit

 
Stratigraphic column of the Paja Formation with Sachicasaurus site indicated

The Paja Formation overlies the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations and is concordantly overlain by the San Gil Group and Tablazo Formations in the eastern extent,[24][25] and the Simití Formation in the northwestern Middle Magdalena Valley.[11] In the Western emerald belt, the contact with the Rosablanca Formation is concordant and abrupt.[26] The total thickness of the formation varies across its extent, but can reach up to 940 metres (3,080 ft).[27]

Members

The Paja Formation is subdivided into three members, from oldest to youngest:

  • Lutitas Negras Inferiores (Lower Black Shales) – a sequence of 340 metres (1,120 ft) of black shales and sandy shales with a segment containing calcareous nodules. The age of this member is estimated at late Hauterivian, based on ammonites analyzed by Fernando Etayo.[28]
  • Arcillolitas Abigarradas (Mottled Claystones) – a series of multicolored claystones with abundant calcareous fossiliferous nodules, reaching a thickness of 480 metres (1,570 ft). In the upper 235 metres (771 ft) of this member, intercalations of gypsum occur. The age of the middle member of the Paja Formation is estimated at early Barremian to late Aptian on the basis of ammonites described by Fernando Etayo.[28]
  • Arcillolitas con Nódulos Huecos (Claystones with Hollow Nodules) – the upper member of the formation of approximately 174 metres (571 ft) thick consists of yellowish and grey claystones containing hollow nodules. Ammonite analysis has led to an estimated late Aptian age for the member.[27]

In the northern part of the Middle Magdalena Valley, the Paja Formation comprises dark grey to blueish shales, intercalated with grey to yellowish fine-grained sandstones and fossiliferous limestones, locally with a sandy component.[29] Bürgl in 1954 reported beds of tuff in the Paja Formation near Villa de Leyva.[30] Thin section analysis of samples of the Paja Formation has provided insight in the micritic components of the sediments, where three microfacies were recognized; biomicritic wackestones, foraminiferous packstones and sandy biomicritic floatstones containing fragments of echinoderms, bivalves, crinoids and gastropods cemented by hematite.[31]

The Paja Formation correlates with the Tibasosa Formation to the east on the northern Altiplano Cundiboyacense in Boyacá and with the El Peñón Formation pertaining to the Villeta Group to the south in the Eastern Ranges. The formation is laterally equivalent with the black shales of the Fómeque Formation in the eastern part of the Eastern Ranges and the sandstones of Las Juntas Formation in the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy.[24] In the Middle Magdalena Valley to the west, the formation partly overlies and partly is laterally equivalent to the limestones of the Rosablanca Formation. The Paja Formation is diachronous with the Ritoque and Rosablanca Formations.[27] To the northeast of the extent of the formation, it correlates with the upper part of the Río Negro Formation,[32] and the lowermost Tibú-Mercedes Formation of the Catatumbo Basin.[33]

Paleogeography edit

 
Paleogeography of northern South America during the Barremian and early Aptian

During deposition of the Paja Formation, the paleo coastline was oriented west-east.[34]

From the late Aptian to early Albian, the area was covered by an extensive carbonate platform, in the extent of the Paja Formation represented by the San Gil Group, Tablazo Formation and Villeta Group.[35]

Depositional environment edit

The thin section analysis led to the interpretation of a shoreface to lower shoreface environment,[36] in the internal parts of a carbonate platform,[37][38] where transgressions and regressions caused the variations in grain sizes and lithologies.[39] The Barremian to Aptian sequence shows evidence of an overall relative sea level fall with open marine sedimentation in the lowest member and tidal deposits in the upper part of the formation.[40]

One of the longest anoxic intervals of geologic history occurred during the Cretaceous, from about 125 to 80 Ma (early Aptian to early Campanian). During this Oceanic Anoxic Event, there were two spikes, the Selli event, dating to the early Aptian (approximately 120 Ma) was active during deposition of the black shales of the Paja Formation.[41] The formation contains three spikes of δ13C, with values above 1.5‰, in the lower, middle to upper and upper Paja Formation.[42] These spikes indicate a global change in the carbon cycle and the preservation of organic matter due to poor oxygenation of sea waters. The cause of these elevated δ13C levels may have been a global increase in volcanic activity.[43]

Mining and petroleum geology edit

The Paja Formation is one of the stratigraphic units cropping out in the Western emerald belt.[44] Mineralization in the formation has been dated on the basis of 40Ar/39Ar analysis of muscovite minerals. In western San Pablo de Borbur, Boyacá, the mineralization dates to the Late Eocene at 36.4 ± 0.1 and 37.3 ± 0.1 Ma.[45] In the northwestern part of Muzo, Boyacá, mineralization happened during the Early Oligocene, at 31.4 ± 0.3 Ma.[46] Previous geologic researchers considered the Paja Formation hosted emeralds,[47] and later definition of the stratigraphy of Colombia separated one of the main emerald formations of Colombia as the contemporaneous Barremian Muzo Formation, providing emeralds in the La Pita mine and important Coscuéz mine.[48]

The Paja Formation is known for its gypsum deposits, which are mined and restricted to Santander.[49] Near Guavatá, the formation hosts sphalerite and malachite and near Otanche, pyrite and galena are found in the formation.[47] In Gámbita, the Paja Formation contains pyrite, galena and chalcopyrite.[50] Other minerals occurring in the Paja Formation, are lead and zinc, around Paime and Yacopí, Cundinamarca.[51]

The Paja Formation is considered a minor source rock in the Eastern Cordillera Basin and the Middle Magdalena Valley, with seal capacity for the underlying Rosablanca Formation reservoir in the latter basin.[52][53] Vitrinite reflectance analysis on samples of the Paja Formation indicate an average value of 0.52 Ro, making the formation a marginal source rock.[54]

Paleontological significance edit

 
Gondava Dinosaur Park

The Paja Formation is the richest Mesozoic fossiliferous formation of Colombia. Fauna of dinosaurs, Padillasaurus, and various marine reptiles, among which plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs, pliosaurs and turtles make up the vertebrate assemblage. Furthermore, many ammonites, the foraminifer Epistomina,[55] decapods, flora and fossil fish have been recovered from the formation. Paja ammonites have been used in the walls and floor of the Convento del Santo Ecce Homo [es] near Villa de Leyva.

In 2019, turtle expert Edwin Cadena described a fossil of Desmatochelys padillai who was found with her eggs still inside her.[56]

Within the Arcillolitas Abigarradas Member of the Paja Formation, some horizons preserve abundant wood, which is frequently bored by pseudoplanktonic pholadoid bivalves, commonly referred to as "shipworms" or "piddocks". The presence of wood boring bivalves in Paja Formation seas indicates the continued presence of xylic substrates, and long residence time of floating wood.[1]

The paleontological richness of the formation led to the establishment of a center of investigation; Centro de Investigaciones Paleontológicas [es] (CIP),[57] two museums; Paleontological Museum of Villa de Leyva [es],[58] and Museo El Fósil,[59] and a dinosaur park; Gondava,[60] near Villa de Leyva.

IUGS geological heritage site edit

In respect of the 'world's most complete record of Lower Cretaceous marine reptiles and associated fauna', the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included the 'Marine Reptile Lagerstätte from the Lower Cretaceous of the Ricaurte Alto' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.'[61]

Fossil content edit

Reptiles edit

Reptiles of the Paja Formation
Genus Species Location Member Description Notes Image
Acostasaurus A. pavachoquensis Arcillolitas abigarradas A pliosaurid with short snout, likely not a brachauchenine
 
Callawayasaurus C. colombiensis Loma La Catalina Arcillolitas abigarradas An elasmosaurid plesiosaur, originally classified in Alzadasaurus
 
Desmatochelys D. padillai Loma de Monsalve
Loma La Catalina
Arcillolitas abigarradas A species of the genus Desmatochelys, sea turtles that belongs to the extinct family Protostegidae. Is the oldest known sea turtle, and a specimen was found with eggs still inside her.
 
Monquirasaurus M. boyacensis Vereda Monquirá Arcillolitas abigarradas A large pliosaurid, initially named "Kronosaurus boyacensis"
 
Leyvachelys L. cipadi Loma La Catalina Arcillolitas abigarradas A durophagous turtle member of the Sandownidae; is the first record for this group in South America. This species occurs too in the Glen Rose Formation in USA
 
Leivanectes L. bernadoi Arcillolitas abigarradas An elasmosaurid plesiosaur
Muiscasaurus M. catheti Vereda Llanitos Arcillolitas abigarradas An ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaur, that it seems have occupied a different ecological niche respect to P. sachicarum
Padillasaurus P. leivaensis La Tordolla Arcillolitas abigarradas A brachiosaurid dinosaur, that makes the first record of a terrestrial animal in the area, and the first Cretaceous brachiosaurid known outside from North America
 
Kyhytysuka K. sachicarum Sáchica Arcillolitas abigarradas A platypterygiine ichthyosaur, relative of P. americanum
 
Sachicasaurus S. vitae Sáchica Arcillolitas abigarradas A 10 metres (33 ft) subadult pliosaur
 
Stenorhynchosaurus S. munozi Loma La Cabrera Arcillolitas abigarradas A small pliosaurid, over 3 meters in length. Formerly considered as a close relative of Brachauchenius lucasi from North America
Teleosauroidea gen. indet. species indet. Arcillolitas abigarradas Mb. Fossils of a member of Teleosauroidea with an estimated body length of 9.6 m, representing the most recent definitive record of Teleosauroidea reported

Ammonites edit

 
Ammonites of the Paja Formation in the floor of Convento del Santo Ecce Homo
 
Centro de Investigaciones Paleontológicas
 
Ammonite in concretion in the Museo Paleontológico de Villa de Leyva
 
Septarian concretions in the museum
Ammonites of the Paja Formation
Species Images Notes
Acanthoptychoceras trumpyi
 
[77]
Ancycloceras vandenheckii
 
[78]
Ancycloceras vandenheckii velezianum [79]
Buergliceras buerglii
 
[77][80]
Colchidites breistrofferi
 
[81][82]
Crioceratites emerici
 
[83]
Crioceratites leivaensis
 
[84]
Crioceratites tener
 
[85]
Hamiticeras chipatai
 
[86]
Hamiticeras pilsbryi
 
[87]
Hamulinites munieri
 
[88]
Karsteniceras beyrichi
 
[89][90]
Karsteniceras multicostatum
 
[91]
Monsalveiceras monsalvense
 
[92]
Nicklesia pulcella
 
[77][82]
Pariacrioceras barremense
 
[78]
Pedioceras asymmetricum
 
[93]
Pedioceras caquesense
 
[94]
Protanisoceras creutzbergi
 
[95]
Pseudoaustraliceras columbiae
 
[96]
Pseudoaustraliceras pavlowi
 
[97]
Pseudoaustraliceras ramososeptatum
 
[98]
Pseudocrioceras anthulai
 
[96]
Ptychoceras puzosianum
 
[81]
Tonohamites koeneni
 
[99]
Criceratites sp.
 
[77]
Pedioceras sp.
 
[77]
Acanthohoplites [100]
Acrioceras julivertii [101]
Colchidites apolinarii [102]
Crioceratites portarum [103]
Favrella colombiana [104]
Heinzia (Gerhardtia) veleziensis [82]
Nicklesia didayana didayana [105]
Nicklesia didayana multifida [105]
Nicklesia dumasiana [105]
Nicklesia nolani [105]
Olcostephanus boussingaultii [106]
Parasaynoceras horridum [107]
Pseudohaploceras incertum [105]
Psilotissotia colombiana [108]
Pulchellia galeata [82]
Dufrenoyia sp. [109]
Valdedorsella sp. [105]

Crustaceans edit

Crustaceans of the Paja Formation
Species Image Notes
Bellcarcinus aptiensis
 
[110]
Colombicarcinus laevis [111]
Notopocorystes kerri [112]
Planocarcinus olssoni [113]
Telamonocarcinus antiquus [114]

Flora edit

Flora of the Paja Formation
Species Image Notes
Frenelopsis cf. ramosissima
 
[115]
Pseudofrenelopsis sp.
 
[116]

Fish edit

Ichnofossils edit

Regional correlations edit


Stratigraphy of the Llanos Basin and surrounding provinces
Ma Age Paleomap Regional events Catatumbo Cordillera proximal Llanos distal Llanos Putumayo VSM Environments Maximum thickness Petroleum geology Notes
0.01 Holocene
 
Holocene volcanism
Seismic activity
alluvium Overburden
1 Pleistocene
 
Pleistocene volcanism
Andean orogeny 3
Glaciations
Guayabo Soatá
Sabana
Necesidad Guayabo Gigante
Neiva
Alluvial to fluvial (Guayabo) 550 m (1,800 ft)
(Guayabo)
[121][122][123][124]
2.6 Pliocene
 
Pliocene volcanism
Andean orogeny 3
GABI
Subachoque
5.3 Messinian Andean orogeny 3
Foreland
Marichuela Caimán Honda [123][125]
13.5 Langhian Regional flooding León hiatus Caja León Lacustrine (León) 400 m (1,300 ft)
(León)
Seal [124][126]
16.2 Burdigalian Miocene inundations
Andean orogeny 2
C1 Carbonera C1 Ospina Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C1) 850 m (2,790 ft)
(Carbonera)
Reservoir [125][124]
17.3 C2 Carbonera C2 Distal lacustrine-deltaic (C2) Seal
19 C3 Carbonera C3 Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C3) Reservoir
21 Early Miocene Pebas wetlands C4 Carbonera C4 Barzalosa Distal fluvio-deltaic (C4) Seal
23 Late Oligocene
 
Andean orogeny 1
Foredeep
C5 Carbonera C5 Orito Proximal fluvio-deltaic (C5) Reservoir [122][125]
25 C6 Carbonera C6 Distal fluvio-lacustrine (C6) Seal
28 Early Oligocene C7 C7 Pepino Gualanday Proximal deltaic-marine (C7) Reservoir [122][125][127]
32 Oligo-Eocene C8 Usme C8 onlap Marine-deltaic (C8) Seal
Source
[127]
35 Late Eocene
 
Mirador Mirador Coastal (Mirador) 240 m (790 ft)
(Mirador)
Reservoir [124][128]
40 Middle Eocene Regadera hiatus
45
50 Early Eocene
 
Socha Los Cuervos Deltaic (Los Cuervos) 260 m (850 ft)
(Los Cuervos)
Seal
Source
[124][128]
55 Late Paleocene PETM
2000 ppm CO2
Los Cuervos Bogotá Gualanday
60 Early Paleocene SALMA Barco Guaduas Barco Rumiyaco Fluvial (Barco) 225 m (738 ft)
(Barco)
Reservoir [121][122][125][124][129]
65 Maastrichtian
 
KT extinction Catatumbo Guadalupe Monserrate Deltaic-fluvial (Guadalupe) 750 m (2,460 ft)
(Guadalupe)
Reservoir [121][124]
72 Campanian End of rifting Colón-Mito Juan [124][130]
83 Santonian Villeta/Güagüaquí
86 Coniacian
89 Turonian Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event La Luna Chipaque Gachetá hiatus Restricted marine (all) 500 m (1,600 ft)
(Gachetá)
Source [121][124][131]
93 Cenomanian
 
Rift 2
100 Albian Une Une Caballos Deltaic (Une) 500 m (1,600 ft)
(Une)
Reservoir [125][131]
113 Aptian
 
Capacho Fómeque Motema Yaví Open marine (Fómeque) 800 m (2,600 ft)
(Fómeque)
Source (Fóm) [122][124][132]
125 Barremian High biodiversity Aguardiente Paja Shallow to open marine (Paja) 940 m (3,080 ft)
(Paja)
Reservoir [121]
129 Hauterivian
 
Rift 1 Tibú-
Mercedes
Las Juntas hiatus Deltaic (Las Juntas) 910 m (2,990 ft)
(Las Juntas)
Reservoir (LJun) [121]
133 Valanginian Río Negro Cáqueza
Macanal
Rosablanca
Restricted marine (Macanal) 2,935 m (9,629 ft)
(Macanal)
Source (Mac) [122][133]
140 Berriasian Girón
145 Tithonian Break-up of Pangea Jordán Arcabuco Buenavista
Batá
Saldaña Alluvial, fluvial (Buenavista) 110 m (360 ft)
(Buenavista)
"Jurassic" [125][134]
150 Early-Mid Jurassic
 
Passive margin 2 La Quinta
Montebel

Noreán
hiatus Coastal tuff (La Quinta) 100 m (330 ft)
(La Quinta)
[135]
201 Late Triassic
 
Mucuchachi Payandé [125]
235 Early Triassic
 
Pangea hiatus "Paleozoic"
250 Permian
 
300 Late Carboniferous
 
Famatinian orogeny Cerro Neiva
()
[136]
340 Early Carboniferous Fossil fish
Romer's gap
Cuche
(355-385)
Farallones
()
Deltaic, estuarine (Cuche) 900 m (3,000 ft)
(Cuche)
360 Late Devonian
 
Passive margin 1 Río Cachirí
(360-419)
Ambicá
()
Alluvial-fluvial-reef (Farallones) 2,400 m (7,900 ft)
(Farallones)
[133][137][138][139][140]
390 Early Devonian
 
High biodiversity Floresta
(387-400)
El Tíbet
Shallow marine (Floresta) 600 m (2,000 ft)
(Floresta)
410 Late Silurian Silurian mystery
425 Early Silurian hiatus
440 Late Ordovician
 
Rich fauna in Bolivia San Pedro
(450-490)
Duda
()
470 Early Ordovician First fossils Busbanzá
(>470±22)
Chuscales
Otengá
Guape
()
Río Nevado
()
Hígado
()
Agua Blanca
Venado
(470-475)
[141][142][143]
488 Late Cambrian
 
Regional intrusions Chicamocha
(490-515)
Quetame
()
Ariarí
()
SJ del Guaviare
(490-590)
San Isidro
()
[144][145]
515 Early Cambrian Cambrian explosion [143][146]
542 Ediacaran
 
Break-up of Rodinia pre-Quetame post-Parguaza El Barro
()
Yellow: allochthonous basement
(Chibcha Terrane)
Green: autochthonous basement
(Río Negro-Juruena Province)
Basement [147][148]
600 Neoproterozoic Cariri Velhos orogeny Bucaramanga
(600-1400)
pre-Guaviare [144]
800
 
Snowball Earth [149]
1000 Mesoproterozoic
 
Sunsás orogeny Ariarí
(1000)
La Urraca
(1030-1100)
[150][151][152][153]
1300 Rondônia-Juruá orogeny pre-Ariarí Parguaza
(1300-1400)
Garzón
(1180-1550)
[154]
1400
 
pre-Bucaramanga [155]
1600 Paleoproterozoic Maimachi
(1500-1700)
pre-Garzón [156]
1800
 
Tapajós orogeny Mitú
(1800)
[154][156]
1950 Transamazonic orogeny pre-Mitú [154]
2200 Columbia
2530 Archean
 
Carajas-Imataca orogeny [154]
3100 Kenorland
Sources
Legend
  • group
  • important formation
  • fossiliferous formation
  • minor formation
  • (age in Ma)
  • proximal Llanos (Medina)[note 1]
  • distal Llanos (Saltarin 1A well)[note 2]


Panorama edit

 
Panorama of the Chicamocha Canyon, from bottom to top; Jurassic Jordán and Girón Formations, and the Cretaceous Rosablanca and Paja Formations

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ based on Duarte et al. (2019)[157], García González et al. (2009),[158] and geological report of Villavicencio[159]
  2. ^ based on Duarte et al. (2019)[157] and the hydrocarbon potential evaluation performed by the UIS and ANH in 2009[160]

References edit

  1. ^ a b Noé et al., 2018
  2. ^ Morales, 1958
  3. ^ Reyes et al., 2006, p.33
  4. ^ a b Plancha 120, 2010
  5. ^ Patarroyo & Moreno, 1997, p.30
  6. ^ Plancha 85, 2006
  7. ^ a b c Plancha 190, 1998
  8. ^ Reyes et al., 2006, p.32
  9. ^ Plancha 119, 2008
  10. ^ Plancha 97, 2009
  11. ^ a b Plancha 96, 2006
  12. ^ Plancha 149, 2008
  13. ^ Plancha 134, 2008
  14. ^ Plancha 150, 2008
  15. ^ a b Plancha 135, 2009
  16. ^ a b Royero & Clavijo, 2001, p.53
  17. ^ Plancha 151, 2009
  18. ^ a b Plancha 170, 2009
  19. ^ Plancha 171, 2009
  20. ^ Reyes et al., 2006, p.83
  21. ^ Plancha 189, 2005
  22. ^ Plancha 191, 1998
  23. ^ Moreno & Hincapié, 2010, p.44
  24. ^ a b Villamil, 2012, p.168
  25. ^ Royero & Clavijo, 2001, p.31
  26. ^ Reyes et al., 2006, p.26
  27. ^ a b c Moreno & Hincapié, 2010, p.26
  28. ^ a b Moreno & Hincapié, 2010, p.25
  29. ^ Sarmiento et al., 2015, p.65
  30. ^ Sarmiento Rojas, 2002, p.56
  31. ^ Espinel & Hurtado, 2010, p.70
  32. ^ Royero & Clavijo, 2001, p.29
  33. ^ Royero & Clavijo, 2001, p.32
  34. ^ Rivera et al., 2018, p.30
  35. ^ Villamil, 2012, p.164
  36. ^ Gaona Narváez et al., 2013
  37. ^ Espinel & Hurtado, 2010, p.73
  38. ^ Espinel & Hurtado, 2010, p.89
  39. ^ Galvis & Valencia, 2009, p.79
  40. ^ Galvis & Valencia, 2009, p.81
  41. ^ Moreno & Hincapié, 2010, p.48
  42. ^ Moreno & Hincapié, 2010, p.63
  43. ^ Moreno & Hincapié, 2010, p.64
  44. ^ Reyes et al., 2006, p.82
  45. ^ Gómez Tapias et al., 2015, p.214
  46. ^ Gómez Tapias et al., 2015, p.208
  47. ^ a b Sarmiento Rojas, 2002, p.65
  48. ^ Reyes et al., 2006, p.106
  49. ^ Royero & Clavijo, 2001, p.60
  50. ^ Sarmiento Rojas, 2002, p.66
  51. ^ Acosta & Ulloa, 2002, p.75
  52. ^ Mojica et al., 2009, p.22
  53. ^ Mojica et al., 2009, p.39
  54. ^ Moreno & Hincapié, 2010, p.74
  55. ^ Patarroyo Camargo et al., 2009
  56. ^ a b En Colombia encuentran el primer fósil de una tortuga marina, ¡embarazada! – Universidad del Rosario
  57. ^ (in Spanish) Centro de Investigaciones Paleontológicas
  58. ^ (in Spanish) Museo Paleontológico de Villa de Leyva
  59. ^ (in Spanish) Museo El Fósil
  60. ^ (in Spanish) Parque Gondava
  61. ^ "The First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites" (PDF). IUGS International Commission on Geoheritage. IUGS. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
  62. ^ Gómez Pérez & Noè, 2017
  63. ^ Welles, 1962
  64. ^ Carpenter, 1999
  65. ^ a b Cadena & Parham, 2015a
  66. ^ Acosta et al., 1979
  67. ^ Hampe, 1992
  68. ^ Cadena, 2015b
  69. ^ Páramo Fonseca et al., 2019
  70. ^ Maxwell et al., 2015
  71. ^ Carballido et al., 2015
  72. ^ Páramo, 1997
  73. ^ Páramo Fonseca et al., 2018, p.226
  74. ^ Hampe, 2005
  75. ^ Páramo et al., 2016
  76. ^ Cortés et al., 2019
  77. ^ a b c d e Patarroyo, 2009, p.19
  78. ^ a b Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.66
  79. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.67
  80. ^ Etayo, 1968b, p.63
  81. ^ a b Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.81
  82. ^ a b c d Patarroyo, 2000, p.154
  83. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.62
  84. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.59
  85. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.61
  86. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.77
  87. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.75
  88. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.80
  89. ^ Etayo, 1968b, p.54
  90. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.71
  91. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.72
  92. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.74
  93. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.64
  94. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.63
  95. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.82
  96. ^ a b Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.68
  97. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.69
  98. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.70
  99. ^ Kabakadze & Hoedemaeker, 1997, p.78
  100. ^ Gómez & Salgado, 2017, p.17
  101. ^ Etayo, 1968b, p.56
  102. ^ Etayo, 1968b, p.59
  103. ^ Etayo, 1968b, p.57
  104. ^ Etayo, 1968b, p.62
  105. ^ a b c d e f Patarroyo, 1997, p.137
  106. ^ Etayo, 1968b, p.60
  107. ^ Etayo, 1968b, p.64
  108. ^ Patarroyo, 2000, p.152
  109. ^ Espinel & Hurtado, 2010, p.11
  110. ^ Luque, 2014
  111. ^ Karasawa et al., 2014
  112. ^ Luque et al., 2012, p.411
  113. ^ Luque et al., 2012, p.408
  114. ^ Luque, 2015
  115. ^ Moreno et al., 2007, p.18
  116. ^ Moreno et al., 2007, p.15
  117. ^ Carrillo Briceño et al., 2019
  118. ^ Alfonso-Rojas, Andrés; Cadena, Edwin-Alberto (2020-07-08). "Exceptionally preserved 'skin' in an Early Cretaceous fish from Colombia". PeerJ. 8: e9479. doi:10.7717/peerj.9479. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 7353916. PMID 32714661.
  119. ^ a b Hampe, Oliver (2005). "Considerations on aBrachauchenius skeleton (Pliosauroidea) from the lower Paja Formation (late Barremian) of Villa de Leyva area (Colombia)". Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin, Geowissenschaftliche Reihe. 8 (1): 37–51. doi:10.1002/mmng.200410003. ISSN 1435-1943.
  120. ^ Chaparro et al., 2015
  121. ^ a b c d e f García González et al., 2009, p.27
  122. ^ a b c d e f García González et al., 2009, p.50
  123. ^ a b García González et al., 2009, p.85
  124. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Barrero et al., 2007, p.60
  125. ^ a b c d e f g h Barrero et al., 2007, p.58
  126. ^ Plancha 111, 2001, p.29
  127. ^ a b Plancha 177, 2015, p.39
  128. ^ a b Plancha 111, 2001, p.26
  129. ^ Plancha 111, 2001, p.24
  130. ^ Plancha 111, 2001, p.23
  131. ^ a b Pulido & Gómez, 2001, p.32
  132. ^ Pulido & Gómez, 2001, p.30
  133. ^ a b Pulido & Gómez, 2001, pp.21-26
  134. ^ Pulido & Gómez, 2001, p.28
  135. ^ Correa Martínez et al., 2019, p.49
  136. ^ Plancha 303, 2002, p.27
  137. ^ Terraza et al., 2008, p.22
  138. ^ Plancha 229, 2015, pp.46-55
  139. ^ Plancha 303, 2002, p.26
  140. ^ Moreno Sánchez et al., 2009, p.53
  141. ^ Mantilla Figueroa et al., 2015, p.43
  142. ^ Manosalva Sánchez et al., 2017, p.84
  143. ^ a b Plancha 303, 2002, p.24
  144. ^ a b Mantilla Figueroa et al., 2015, p.42
  145. ^ Arango Mejía et al., 2012, p.25
  146. ^ Plancha 350, 2011, p.49
  147. ^ Pulido & Gómez, 2001, pp.17-21
  148. ^ Plancha 111, 2001, p.13
  149. ^ Plancha 303, 2002, p.23
  150. ^ Plancha 348, 2015, p.38
  151. ^ Planchas 367-414, 2003, p.35
  152. ^ Toro Toro et al., 2014, p.22
  153. ^ Plancha 303, 2002, p.21
  154. ^ a b c d Bonilla et al., 2016, p.19
  155. ^ Gómez Tapias et al., 2015, p.209
  156. ^ a b Bonilla et al., 2016, p.22
  157. ^ a b Duarte et al., 2019
  158. ^ García González et al., 2009
  159. ^ Pulido & Gómez, 2001
  160. ^ García González et al., 2009, p.60

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  • Villamil, Tomas. 2012. Chronology Relative Sea Level History and a New Sequence Stratigraphic Model for Basinal Cretaceous Facies of Colombia, 161–216. Society for Sedimentary Geology (SEPM).
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  • Galvis Arenas, Beatriz Elena, and José Leonardo Valencia Escobar. 2009. Contribución en la determinación de los posibles paleoambientes de las rocas Cretáceas Tempranas sobre la vía Tunja-Villa de Leyva (entre Alto del Arrayán – Peaje Sáchica) y sectores aledaños, departamento de Boyacá (BSc. thesis), 1–127. Universidad de Caldas. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Mojica, Jairo; Oscar J. Arévalo, and Hardany Castillo. 2009. Cuencas Catatumbo, Cesar – Ranchería, Cordillera Oriental, Llanos Orientales, Valle Medio y Superior del Magdalena, 1–65. ANH. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Reyes, Germán; Diana Montoya; Roberto Terraza; Jaime Fuquen; Marcela Mayorga; Tatiana Gaona, and Fernando Etayo. 2006. Geología del cinturón esmeraldífero occidental Planchas 169, 170, 189, 190, 1–114. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Sarmiento Rojas, L.F. 2002. Condiciones geológicas favorables de las sedimentitas Cretácicas de la Cordillera Oriental de Colombia para la existencia de depósitos exhalativos submarinos de plomo y zinc. Boletín de Geología 24. 49–72. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Royero Gutiérrez, José María, and Jairo Clavijo. 2001. Mapa geológico del Departamento de Santander 1:400,000 – Memoria Explicativa, 1–92. INGEOMINAS.
  • Rodríguez Parra, Antonio José, and Orlando Solano Silva. 2000. Mapa Geológico del Departamento de Boyacá – 1:250,000 – Memoria explicativa, 1–120. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Patarroyo, Pedro, and Manuel Moreno Murillo. 1997. Nuevas Consideraciones en torno al Cabeceo del Anticlinal de Arcabuco, en cercanias de Villa de Leyva – Boyacá. Geología Colombiana 22. 27–34. Accessed 2019-03-12.
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  • Morales, Luis G. 1958. General Geology and Oil Occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia, 641–695. AAPG habitat of oil symposium. Accessed 2019-03-12.
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  • Cortes, Dirley; Hans C.E. Larsson; Erin E. Maxwell; Mary L. Parra Ruge; Pedro Patarroyo, and Jeffrey A. Wilson. 2019. An Early Cretaceous teleosauroid (Crocodylomorpha: Thalattosuchia) from Colombia. Ameghiniana in press(). .. . doi:10.5710/AMGH.26.09.2019.3269
  • Noé, Leslie; Paula Ordóñez Pérez; Luisa Rengifo Cajias, and Marcela Gómez Pérez. 2018. Lower Cretaceous marine boring bivalves, from the Paja Formation Lagerstätte of central Colombia, northern South America, 1. 5th International Palaeontological Congress, Paris. Accessed 2019-03-29.
  • Páramo Fonseca, María Euridice; Cristian David Benavides Cabra, and Ingry Esmirna Gutiérrez. 2018. A new late Aptian elasmosaurid from the Paja Formation, Villa de Leiva, Colombia. Earth Sciences Research Journal 22. 223–238. Accessed 2019-10-12.
  • Gómez Guerrero, Manuel Eduardo, and Estefanía Salgado Jáuregui. 2017. Guía para reconocer objetos del patrimonio geológico y paleontológico, 1–44. Servicio Geológico Colombiano. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Gómez Pérez, Marcela, and Leslie F. Noè. 2017. Cranial anatomy of a new pliosaurid Acostasaurus pavachoquensis from the Lower Cretaceous of Colombia, South America. Palaeontographica Abteilung A 310(1–2). 5–42. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Páramo, María E.; Marcela Gómez Pérez; Leslie F. Noé, and Fernando Etayo. 2016. Stenorhynchosaurus munozi, gen. et sp. nov. a new pliosaurid from the Upper Barremian (Lower Cretaceous) of Villa de Leiva, Colombia, South America. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales 40. 84–103. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Cadena, Edwin A., and James F. Parham. 2015a. Oldest known marine turtle? A new protostegid from the Lower Cretaceous of Colombia. PaleoBios 32. 1–42. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Cadena, Edwin. 2015b. The first South American sandownid turtle from the Lower Cretaceous of Colombia. PeerJ 3. e1431. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Carballido, José L.; Diego Pol; Mary L. Parra Ruge; Santiago Padilla Bernal; María E. Páramo Fonseca, and Fernando Etayo Serna. 2015. A new Early Cretaceous brachiosaurid (Dinosauria, Neosauropoda) from northwestern Gondwana (Villa de Leiva, Colombia). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology Online edition. e980505. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Chaparro Vargas, León F.; Oscar M. León Sánchez, and Arley de J. Gómez Cruz. 2015. Ocurrencia de Teredolites clavatus (Leymerie, 1842) en la Formación Paja (Aptiano) de Colombia, 1–2. Colonia del Sacramento, Uruguay, III Simposio Latinoamericano de Icnología. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Luque, Javier. 2015. The oldest higher true crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura): insights from the Early Cretaceous of the Americas. Palaeontology 58. 251–263. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Maxwell, Erin E.; Daniel Dick; Santiago Padilla, and Mary Luz Parra. 2015. A new ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaur from the Early Cretaceous of Colombia. Papers in Palaeontology 2. 59–70. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Karasawa, Hiroaki; Carrie E. Schweitzer; Rodney M. Feldmann, and Javier Luque. 2014. Phylogeny and Classification of Raninoida (Decapoda: Brachyura). Journal of Crustacean Biology 34. 216–272. Accessed 2019-03-12.
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  • Patarroyo, Pedro. 2009. Amonitas de un nivel de alta energía del Barremiano inferior en la Formación Paja de los sectores de Villa de Leyva (Boyacá) y Vélez (Santander). Boletín de Geología 31. 15–21. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Moreno Sánchez, M.; A. de J. Gómez Cruz, and H. Castillo González. 2007. Frenelopsis y Pseudofrenelopsis (Coniferales: Cheirolepidiaceae) en el Cretácico temprano de Colombia. Boletín de Geología 29. 13–19. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Hampe, Oliver. 2005. Considerations on a Brachauchenius skeleton (Pliosauroidea) from the lower Paja Formation (late Barremian) of Villa de Leyva area (Colombia). Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin, Geowissenschaftliche Reihe 8. 37–51. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Patarroyo, Pedro. 2000. Distribución de Amonitas del Barremiano de la Formación Paja en el Sector de Villa de Leyva (Boyacá, Colombia). Bioestratigrafía. Geología Colombiana 25. 149–162. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Páramo, María E. 1998. Platypterygius sachicarum (Reptilia, Ichthyosauria) nueva especie del Cretácico de Colombia. Revista INGEOMINAS 6. 1–12. .
  • Kakabadze, Mikheil V., and Philip J. Hoedemaeker. 1997. New and less known Barremian-Albian ammonites from Colombia. Scripta Geologica 114. 57–117. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Hampe, O. 1992. Ein großwüchsiger Pliosauride (Reptilia:Plesiosauria) aus der Unterkreide (oberes Aptium) von Kolumbien. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 145. 1–32. .
  • Acosta, C.E.; G. Huertas, and P.M. Ruiz. 1979. Noticia preliminar sobre el hallazgo de un presunto Kronosaurus (Reptilia: Dolichorhynchopidae) en el Aptiano superior de Villa de Leiva, Colombia. Lozania (Acta Zoologica Colombiana) 28. 1–7. .
  • Etayo Serna, Fernando. 1968a. El Sistema Cretáceo en la región de Villa de Leiva y zonas próximas. Geología Colombiana 5. 5–74. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Etayo Serna, Fernando. 1968b. Apuntaciones acerca de algunas amonitas interesantes del Hauteriviano y del Barremiano de la region de Villa de Leiva (Boyaca, Colombia, S.A.) – Hauterivian and Barremian ammonites from the Villa de Leiva region (Boyaca, Colombia, South America). Boletín de Geología 24. 51–70. Accessed 2019-03-12.
  • Welles, S.P. 1962. A new species of elasmosaur from the Aptian of Colombia and a review of the Cretaceous plesiosaurs. University of California Publications in Geological Sciences 44(1). 1–96. .

Maps edit

  • Bernal Vargas, Luis Enrique, and Luis Carlos Mantilla Figueroa. 2006. Plancha 85 – Simití – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Bernal Vargas, Luis Enrique, and Luis Carlos Mantilla Figueroa. 2006. Plancha 96 – Bocas del Rosario – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Vargas, Rodrigo, and Alfonso Arias. 2009. Plancha 97 – Cáchira – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Beltrán, Alejandro, and Claudia I. Quintero. 2008. Plancha 119 – Barrancabermeja – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Ward, Dwight E.; Richard Goldsmith; Andrés Jimeno; Jaime Cruz; Hernán Restrepo, and Eduardo Gómez. 2010. Plancha 120 – Bucaramanga – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Beltrán, Alejandro; José Alfredo Lancheros; Carolina López; Claudia Chaquea; Alejandro Patiño; Angela Guerra; Julio C. Cabrera; Claudia I. Quintero, and Simón Emilio Molano. 2008. Plancha 134 – Puerto Parra – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Angarita, Leonidas; Víctor Carrillo; Alfonso Castro; Rommel Daconte; Mario Niño; Orlando G. Pulido; J. Antonio Rodríguez; José María Royero, and Rosalba Salinas, Carlos Ulloa and Rodrigo Vargas. 2009. Plancha 135 – San Gil – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Beltrán, Alejandro; José Alfredo Lancheros; Carolina López; Claudia Chaquea; Alejandro Patiño; Angela Guerra; Julio C. Cabrera; Claudia I. Quintero, and Simón Emilio Molano. 2008. Plancha 149 – Puerto Serviez – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Beltrán, Alejandro; José Alfredo Lancheros; Carolina López; Claudia Chaquea; Alejandro Patiño; Angela Guerra; Julio C. Cabrera; Claudia I. Quintero, and Simón Emilio Molano. 2008. Plancha 150 – Cimitarra – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Pulido González, Orlando. 2009. Plancha 151 – Charalá – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Ulloa, Carlos E, and Erasmo Rodríguez. 2009. Plancha 170 – Vélez – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Renzoni, Giancarlo, and Humberto Rosas. 2009. Plancha 171 – Duitama – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Fuquen M., Jaime A, and José F. Osorno M. 2009. Plancha 190 – Chiquinquirá – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.
  • Renzoni, Giancarlo; Humberto Rosas, and Fernando Etayo Serna. 1998. Plancha 191 – Tunja – 1:100,000, 1. INGEOMINAS. Accessed 2017-06-06.

External links edit

  • (in Spanish) Leyvachelys cipadi, una nueva especie de tortuga sandownidae del Cretácico inferior de Colombia
  • (in Spanish) Brachauchenius, un superpredador de los mares cretácicos