Like many other languages, English has wide variation in pronunciation, both historically and from dialect to dialect. In general, however, the regional dialects of English share a largely similar (but not identical) phonological system. Among other things, most dialects have vowel reduction in unstressed syllables and a complex set of phonological features that distinguish fortis and lenis consonants (stops, affricates, and fricatives).
This article describes the development of the phonology of English over time, starting from its roots in proto-Germanic to diverse changes in different dialects of modern English.
In the following description, abbreviations are used as follows:
This section summarizes the changes occurring within distinct time periods, covering the last 2,000 years or so. Within each subsection, changes are in approximate chronological order.
The time periods for some of the early stages are quite short due to the extensive population movements occurring during the Migration Period (early AD), which resulted in rapid dialect fragmentation.
This period includes changes in late Proto-Germanic, up to about the 1st century. Only a general overview of the more important changes is given here; for a full list, see the Proto-Germanic article.
This was the period after the East Germanic languages had split off. Changes during this time were shared with the North Germanic dialects, i.e. Proto-Norse. Many of the changes that occurred were areal, and took time to propagate throughout a dialect continuum that was already diversifying. Thus, the ordering of the changes is sometimes ambiguous, and can differ between dialects.
This period occurred around the 2nd to 4th centuries. It is unclear if there was ever a distinct "Proto-West Germanic", as most changes in this period were areal, and likely spread throughout a dialect continuum that was already diversifying further. Thus, this "period" may not have been a real timespan, but may simply cover certain areal changes that did not reach into North Germanic. This period ends with the further diversification of West Germanic into several groups before and during the Migration Period: Ingvaeonic, Istvaeonic (Old Frankish) and Irminonic (Upper German).
This period is estimated to have lasted only a century or so, the 4th to 5th; the time during which the Franks started to spread south into Gaul (France) and the various coastal people began colonising Britain. Changes in this period affected the Ingvaeonic languages, but not the more southerly Central and Upper German languages. The Ingvaeonic group was probably never homogeneous, but was divided further into Old Saxon and Anglo-Frisian. Old Frankish (and later Old Dutch) was not in the core group, but was affected by the spread of several areal changes from the Ingvaeonic area.
The Anglo-Frisian languages shared several unique changes that were not found in the other West Germanic languages. The migration to Britain caused a further split into early Old English and early Old Frisian.
This period is estimated to be c. AD 475–900. This includes changes from the split between Old English and Old Frisian (c. AD 475) up through historic early West Saxon of AD 900:
This period is estimated to be c. 900–1400.
This period is estimated to be c. AD 1400–1600.
This period is estimated to be c. AD 1600–1725.[citation needed]
This period is estimated to be c. AD 1725–1945.
Some of these changes are in progress.
The following table shows a possible sequence of changes for some basic vocabulary items, leading from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Modern English. The notation ">!" indicates an unexpected change, whereas the simple notation ">" indicates an expected change. An empty cell means no change at the given stage for the given item. Only sound changes that had an effect on one or more of the vocabulary items are shown.
one | two | three | four | five | six | seven | mother | heart | hear | foot | feet | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Proto-Indo-European | óynos | dwóh₁ | tríh₂ (fem.) | kʷetwṓr | pénkʷe | séḱs | septḿ̥ | méh₂tēr | ḱḗr | h₂ḱowsyónom | pṓds | pódes |
Centumization | séks | kḗr | h₂kowsyónom | |||||||||
Pre-Germanic unexpected changes (perhaps P-Celtic or P-Italic influences) | >! dwóy | >! tríh₂s | >! petwṓr | >! pémpe | >! sepḿ̥d | >! meh₂tḗr | >! kérdō | pṓdes | ||||
Sonorant epenthesis | sepúmd | |||||||||||
Final overlong vowels | kérdô | |||||||||||
Laryngeal loss | trī́s | mātḗr | kowsyónom | |||||||||
Loss of final nonhigh vowels | pemp | |||||||||||
Grimm's Law | twoi | þrī́s | feþwṓr | fémf | sehs | sefúmt | māþḗr | hértô | housjónom | fṓts | fṓtes | |
Verner's Law | oinoz | þrīz | feðwōr | seβumt | māðēr | houzjonom | fōtez | |||||
Unstressed syllables: owo > ō, ew > ow, e > i, ji > i | fōtiz | |||||||||||
o > a, ō > ā, ô > â | ainaz | twai | feðwār | hertâ | hauzjanam | fāts | fātiz | |||||
Final -m > -n | hauzjanan | |||||||||||
m > n before dental | seβunt | |||||||||||
Final -n > nasalization | hauzjaną | |||||||||||
Loss of final -t | seβun | |||||||||||
Sievers' Law | hauzijaną | |||||||||||
Nasal raising | fimf | |||||||||||
ā > ō, â > ô | feðwōr | mōðēr | hertô | fōts | fōtiz | |||||||
Proto-Germanic form | *ainaz | *twai | *þrīz | *feðwōr | *fimf | *sehs | *seβun | *mōðēr | *hertô | *hauzijaną | *fōts | *fōtiz |
Final vowel shortening/loss | *ainz? | *þrīz | *feðwur | *mōðar | *hertō | *hauzijan | ||||||
Final -z loss | *ain | *þrī | *fōti | |||||||||
Rhotacism: z > r | haurijan | |||||||||||
Intervocalic ðw > ww | *fewwur | |||||||||||
Hardening: ð > d, β > v, f [ɸ] > [f] | *finf | *sevun | *mōdar | |||||||||
Morphological changes | >! *þriju | >! *herta | > *fōt | |||||||||
West Germanic pre-form | ain | twai | þriju | fewwur | finf | sehs | sevun | mōdar | herta | haurijan | fōt | fōti |
Ingvaeonic (prespirant) nasal loss | fīf | |||||||||||
ai > ā | ān | twā | ||||||||||
Anglo-Frisian brightening | hertæ | hæurijan | ||||||||||
I-mutation | heyrijan | fēti | ||||||||||
Loss of medial -ij- | heyran | |||||||||||
Breaking | hĕŭrtæ | |||||||||||
Diphthong height harmony | feowur | hĕŏrtæ | hēran, hiyran | |||||||||
Back mutation | sĕŏvun | |||||||||||
Final reduction | feowor | sĕŏvon | >! mōdor | hĕŏrte | fēt | |||||||
Raising: ehs eht > ihs iht | sihs | |||||||||||
hs > ks | siks | |||||||||||
Late OE lowering: iu > eo | þreo | |||||||||||
iy > ȳ | hȳran | |||||||||||
Late Old English spelling | ān | twā | þrēo | fēowor | fīf | six | seofon | mōdor | heorte | hēran, hȳran | fōt | fēt |
Middle English (ME) smoothing | θrøː | føːwor | søvon | hørte | ||||||||
ME final reduction | føːwər | søvən | moːdər | hørtə | heːrən | |||||||
ME /aː æː/ > /ɔː ɛː/ | ɔːn | twɔː | ||||||||||
/-dər/ > /-ðər/ | moːðər | |||||||||||
ME unexpected (?) vowel changes | >! fiːv-ə | >! hɛːrən | ||||||||||
ME diphthong changes | >! fowər | |||||||||||
Late ME unrounding | θreː | sevən | hertə | |||||||||
Late Middle English spelling (c. 1350) | oon | two | three | fower | five | six | seven | mother | herte | heere(n) | foot | feet |
Late ME final reduction (late 1300s) | >! fowr | fiːv | hert | hɛːr | ||||||||
Late ME /er/ > /ar/ (1400s)[43] | hart | |||||||||||
Late ME Great Vowel Shift (c. 1400-1550) | oːn >! wʊn | twoː | θriː | fəiv | muːðər | heːr | fuːt | fiːt | ||||
Early Modern English (EModE) smoothing | foːr | |||||||||||
EModE raising /woː/ > /wuː/ > /uː/[44] | tuː | |||||||||||
EModE shortening | mʊðər | |||||||||||
EModE /ʊ/ > /ɤ/ > /ʌ/ | wʌn | mʌðər | ||||||||||
EModE shortening | fʊt | |||||||||||
Later vowel shifts | fɔːr | faiv | sɪks | hɑrt | hiːr | |||||||
Loss of -r (regional) | fɔː | mʌðə | hɑːt | hiə | ||||||||
Modern pronunciation | wʌn | tuː | θriː | fɔː(r) | faɪv | sɪks | sevən | mʌðə(r) | hɑrt/hɑːt | hiːr/hɪː | fʊt | fiːt |
one | two | three | four | five | six | seven | mother | heart | hear | foot | feet |
NOTE: Some of the changes listed above as "unexpected" are more predictable than others. For example:
This table describes the main historical developments of English vowels in the last 1000 years, beginning with late Old English and focusing on the Middle English and Modern English changes leading to the current forms. It provides a lot of detail about the changes taking place in the last 600 years (since Middle English), while omitting any detail in the Old English and earlier periods. For more detail about the changes in the first millennium AD, see the section on the development of Old English vowels.
This table omits the history of Middle English diphthongs; see that link for a table summarizing the developments.
The table is organized around the pronunciation of Late Middle English c. 1400 AD (the time of Chaucer) and the modern spelling system, which dates from the same time and closely approximates the pronunciation of the time. Modern English spelling originates in the spelling conventions of Middle English scribes and its modern form was largely determined by William Caxton, the first English printer (beginning in 1476).
As an example, the vowel spelled ⟨a⟩ corresponds to two Middle English pronunciations: /a/ in most circumstances, but long /aː/ in an open syllable, i.e. followed by a single consonant and then a vowel, notated aCV in the spelling column. (This discussion ignores the effect of trisyllabic laxing.) The lengthened variant is due to the Early Middle English process of open-syllable lengthening; this is indicated by (leng.). Prior to that time, both vowels were pronounced the same, as a short vowel /a/; this is reflected by the fact that there is a single merged field corresponding to both Middle English sounds in the Late Old English column (the first column). However, this earlier Middle English vowel /a/ is itself the merger of a number of different Anglian Old English sounds:
Moving forward in time, the two Middle English vowels /a/ and /aː/ correspond directly to the two vowels /a/ and /ɛː/, respectively, in the Early Modern English of c. 1600 AD (the time of Shakespeare). However, each vowel has split into a number of different pronunciations in Modern English, depending on the phonological context. The short /a/, for example, has split into seven different vowels, all still spelled ⟨a⟩ but pronounced differently:
NOTE: In this table, abbreviations are used as follows:
|
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Late Old English (Anglian), c. 1000 | Middle English pronunciation, c. 1400 | Modern English spelling, c. 1500 | Early Modern English pronunciation, c. 1600 | Modern English pronunciation, c. 2000 | Source | Example |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a; æ; ea; ā+CC; often ǣ+CC,ēa+CC; occ. ē+CC (WS ǣ+CC) | /a/ | a | /a/ | /æ/ | OE a | OE mann > man; OE lamb > lamb; OE sang > sang; OE sacc > sack; OE assa > ass (donkey) |
OE æ | OE fæþm embrace > fathom; OE sæt > sat; OE æt > at; OE mæsse > mass (at church) | |||||
OE ea | OE weax > wax; OE healf > half /hæf/ (GA) | |||||
OE +CC | OE āscian > ask /æsk/ (GA); OE fǣtt > fat; OE lǣstan > to last /læst/ (GA) ; OE blēddre (WS blǣddre) > bladder; OE brēmbel (WS brǣmbel) > bramble | |||||
(w+, not +g,ck,ng,nk) GA /ɑ/, RP /ɒ/ | OE a | OE swan > swan; OE wasċan > to wash; OE wann dark > wan | ||||
OE æ | OE swæþ > swath; OE wæsp > wasp | |||||
OE ea | OE wealwian > to wallow; OE swealwe > swallow (bird) | |||||
(+r) /ar/ > GA /ɑr/, RP /ɑː/ | OE heard > hard; OE ærc (WS earc) > ark | |||||
(w+ and +r) /ɔr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ | OE ea | OE swearm > swarm; OE sweart > old poetic swart >! swarthy; OE weardian > to ward; OE wearm > warm; OE wearnian > to warn | ||||
(+lC,l#) /ɔː/ | OE smæl > small; OE all (WS eall) > all; OE walcian (WS wealcian) to roll > to walk | |||||
(+lm) GA /ɑ/, RP /ɑː/ | OE ælmesse > alms; Latin palma > OE 'palm > palm | |||||
(RP, often +f,s,th) /ɑː/ | OE glæs > glass; OE græs > grass; OE pæþ > path; OE æfter > after; OE āscian /ɑːsk/ > to ask; OE lǣstan /lɑːst/ > to last | |||||
(leng.) /aː/ [æː] | aCV | /ɛː/ | /eː/ > /eɪ/ | OE a | OE nama > name; OE nacod > naked; OE bacan > to bake | |
OE æ | OE æcer > acre; OE hwæl > whale; OE hræfn > raven | |||||
(+r) /eːr/ > GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ | OE a | OE caru > care; OE faran > to fare; OE starian > to stare | ||||
e; eo; occ. y; ē+CC; ēo+CC; occ. ǣ+CC,ēa+CC | /e/ | e | /ɛ/ | /ɛ/ | OE e | OE helpan > to help; OE elh (WS eolh) > elk; OE tellan > to tell; OE betera > better; OE streċċan > to stretch |
OE eo | OE seofon > seven | |||||
OE y | OE myriġ > merry; OE byrġan > to bury /ˈbɛri/; OE lyft- weak > left (hand); OE cnyll > knell | |||||
OE +CC | OE cēpte > kept; OE mētte > met; OE bēcnan (WS bīecnan) > to beckon; OE clǣnsian > to cleanse; OE flǣsċ > flesh; OE lǣssa > less; OE frēond > friend /frɛnd/; OE þēofþ (WS þīefþ) > theft; OE hēold > held | |||||
(+r) ar | /ar/ | GA /ɑr/, RP /ɑː/ | OE heorte > heart; OE bercan (WS beorcan) > to bark; OE teoru (WS teru) > tar; OE steorra > star | |||
(w+ and +r) /ɔr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ | AN werra > war; AN werbler > to warble | |||||
(occ. +r) er | /ɛr/ | /ər/ > GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ | OE e | OE sterne (WS stierne, styrne) > stern | ||
OE eo | OE eorl > earl; OE eorþe > earth; OE liornian, leornian > to learn | |||||
OE +CC | OE hērde (WS hīerde) > heard | |||||
(leng.) /ɛː/ | ea,eCV | /eː/ | /iː/ | OE specan > to speak; OE mete > meat; OE beofor > beaver; OE meotan (WS metan) > to mete /miːt/; OE eotan (WS etan) > to eat; OE meodu (WS medu) > mead; OE yfel > evil | ||
(+r) /iːr/ > GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ | OE spere > spear; OE mere > mere (lake) | |||||
(occ.) /eɪ/ | OE brecan > to break /breɪk/ | |||||
(occ. +r) /eːr/ > GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ | OE beoran (WS beran) > to bear; OE pere, peru > pear; OE swerian > to swear; OE wer man > were- | |||||
(often +th,d,t,v) /ɛ/ | OE leþer > leather /lɛðɚ/; OE stede > stead; OE weder > weather; OE heofon > heaven; OE hefiġ > heavy | |||||
i; y; ī+CC,ȳ+CC; occ. ēoc,ēc; occ. ī+CV,ȳ+CV | /i/ | i | /ɪ/ | /ɪ/ | OE i | OE writen > written; OE sittan > to sit; OE fisċ > fish; OE lifer > liver |
OE y | OE bryċġ > bridge; OE cyssan > to kiss; OE dyde > did; OE synn > sin; OE gyldan > to gild; OE bysiġ > busy /ˈbɪzi/ | |||||
OE +CC | OE wīsdōm > wisdom; OE fīftiġ > fifty; OE wȳsċan > to wish; OE cȳþþ(u) > kith; OE fȳst > fist | |||||
OE ȳ+CV,ī+CV | OE ċīcen > chicken; OE lȳtel > little | |||||
OE ēoc,ēc | OE sēoc > sick; OE wēoce > wick; OE ēc + nama > ME eke-name >! nickname | |||||
(+r) /ər/ > GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ | OE gyrdan > to gird; OE fyrst > first; OE styrian > to stir | |||||
(leng. — occ.) /eː/ | ee | /iː/ | /iː/ | OE wicu > week; OE pilian > to peel; OE bitela > beetle | ||
o; ō+CC | /o/ | o | /ɔ/ | GA /ɑ/, RP /ɒ/ | OE o | OE god > god; OE beġeondan > beyond |
OE +CC | OE gōdspell > gospel; OE fōddor > fodder; OE fōstrian > to foster | |||||
(GA, +f,s,th,g,ng) /ɔː/ | OE moþþe > moth; OE cros > cross; OE frost > frost; OE of > off; OE oft > oft; OE sōfte > soft | |||||
(+r) /ɔr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ | OE corn > corn; OE storc > storc; OE storm > storm | |||||
(leng.) /ɔː/ | oa,oCV | /oː/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ | OE fola > foal; OE nosu > nose; OE ofer > over | ||
(+r) /oːr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ | OE borian > to bore; OE fore > fore; OE bord > board | |||||
u; occ. y; ū+CC; w+ e,eo,o,y +r | /u/ | u,o | /ʊ/ | /ʌ/ | OE u | OE bucc > buck /bʌk/; OE lufian > to love /lʌv/; OE uppe > up; OE on bufan > above |
OE y | OE myċel > ME muchel >! much; OE blysċan > to blush; OE cyċġel > cudgel; OE clyċċan > to clutch; OE sċytel > shuttle | |||||
OE +CC | OE dūst > dust; OE tūsc > tusk; OE rūst > rust | |||||
(b,f,p+ and +l,sh) /ʊ/ | OE full > full /fʊl/; OE bula > bull; OE bysċ > bush | |||||
(+r) /ər/ > GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ | OE u | OE spurnan > to spurn | ||||
OE y | OE ċyriċe > church; OE byrþen > burden; OE hyrdel > hurdle | |||||
OE w+,+r | OE word > word; OE werc (WS weorc) > work; OE werold > world; OE wyrm > worm; OE wersa (WS wiersa) > worse; OE weorþ > worth | |||||
(leng. — occ.) /oː/ | oo | /uː/ | /uː/ | OE (brȳd)-guma > ME (bride)-gome >! (bride)-groom | ||
(+r) /uːr/ > /oːr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ | OE duru > door | |||||
(often +th,d,t) /ʌ/ | ? | |||||
(occ. +th,d,t) /ʊ/ | OE wudu > wood /wʊd/ | |||||
ā; often a+ld,mb | /ɔː/ | oa,oCV | /oː/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ | OE ā | OE āc > oak; OE hāl > whole |
OE +ld,mb | OE camb > comb; OE ald (WS eald) > old; OE haldan (WS healdan) > to hold | |||||
(+r) /oːr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ | OE ār > oar, ore; OE māra > more; OE bār > boar; OE sār > sore | |||||
ǣ; ēa | /ɛː/ | ea,eCV | /eː/ | /iː/ | OE ǣ | OE hǣlan > to heal /hiːl/; OE hǣtu > heat; OE hwǣte > wheat |
OE ēa | OE bēatan > to beat /biːt/; OE lēaf > leaf; OE ċēap > cheap | |||||
(+r) /iːr/ > GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ | OE rǣran > to rear ; OE ēare > ear; OE sēar > sere; OE sēarian > to sear | |||||
(occ.) /eɪ/ | OE grēat > great /greɪt/ | |||||
(occ. +r) /eːr/ > GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ | OE ǣr > ere (before) | |||||
(often +th,d,t) /ɛ/ | OE ǣ | OE brǣþ odor > breath; OE swǣtan > to sweat; OE sprǣdan > to spread | ||||
OE ēa | OE dēad > dead /dɛd/; OE dēaþ death; OE þrēat menace > threat; OE rēad > red; OE dēaf > deaf | |||||
ē; ēo; often e+ld | /eː/ | ee,ie(nd/ld) | /iː/ | /iː/ | OE ē | OE fēdan > to feed; OE grēdiġ (WS grǣdiġ) > greedy; OE mē > me; OE fēt > feet; OE dēd (WS dǣd) > deed; OE nēdl (WS nǣdl) > needle |
OE ēo | OE dēop deep; OE fēond > fiend; OE betwēonum > between; OE bēon > to be | |||||
OE +ld | OE feld > field; OE ġeldan (WS ġieldan) to pay > to yield | |||||
(often +r) /ɛːr/ | ear,erV | /eːr/ | /iːr/ > GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ | OE ē | OE hēr > here; OE hēran (WS hīeran) > to hear; OE fēr (WS fǣr) > fear | |
OE ēo | OE dēore (WS dīere) > dear | |||||
(occ.) /eːr/ > GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ | OE þēr (WS þǣr) > there; OE hwēr (WS hwǣr) > where | |||||
(occ. +r) /eːr/ | eer | /iːr/ | /iːr/ > GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ | OE bēor > beer; OE dēor > deer; OE stēran (WS stīeran) > to steer; OE bēr (WS bǣr) > bier | ||
ī; ȳ; often i+ld,mb,nd; often y+ld,mb,nd | /iː/ | i,iCV | /əi/ | /aɪ/ | OE ī | OE rīdan > to ride; OE tīma > time; OE hwīt > white; OE mīn > mine (of me) |
OE ȳ | OE mȳs > mice; OE brȳd > bride; OE hȳdan > to hide | |||||
OE +ld,mb,nd | OE findan > to find; OE ċild > child; OE climban > to climb; OE mynd > mind | |||||
(+r) /air/ > GA /aɪr/, RP /aɪə/ | OE fȳr > fire; OE hȳrian > to hire; OE wīr > wire | |||||
ō; occ. ēo | /oː/ | oo | /uː/ | /uː/ | OE ō | OE mōna > moon; OE sōna > soon; OE fōd > food /fuːd/; OE dōn > to do |
OE ēo | OE ċēosan > to choose; OE sċēotan > to shoot | |||||
(+r) /uːr/ > /oːr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ | OE flōr > floor; OE mōr > moor | |||||
(occ. +th,d,v) /ʌ/ | OE blōd > blood /blʌd/; OE mōdor > mother /mʌðə(r)/; OE glōf > glove /glʌv/ | |||||
(often +th,d,t,k) /ʊ/ | OE gōd > good /gʊd/; OE bōc > book /bʊk/; OE lōcian > to look /lʊk/; OE fōt > foot /fʊt/ | |||||
ū; often u+nd | /uː/ | ou | /əu/ | /aʊ/ | OE ū | OE mūs > mouse; OE ūt, ūte > out; OE hlūd > loud |
OE +nd | OE ġefunden > found; OE hund > hound; OE ġesund > sound (safe) | |||||
(+r) /aur/ > GA /aʊr/, RP /aʊə/ | OE | OE ūre > our; OE sċūr > shower; OE sūr > sour | ||||
(occ. +t) /ʌ/ | OE būtan > but; OE strūtian > ME strouten > to strut |
This table describes the main developments of Middle English diphthongs, starting with the Old English sound sequences that produced them (sequences of vowels and g, h or ƿ) and ending with their Modern English equivalents. Many special cases have been ignored.
Note: V means "any vowel"; C means "any consonant"; # means "end of word".
Late Old English (Anglian) | Early Middle English | Late Middle English | Early Modern English | Modern English | Example (Old and Modern English forms given)[45] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
æġ, ǣġ | /ai/ | /ai/ [æi] | /eː/ | /eɪ/ | dæġ > day; mæġ > may; mæġden > maiden; næġl > nail; fæġer > fair; clǣġ > clay; grǣġ > gray |
eġ, ēġ# | /ɛi/ | weġ > way; pleġan > to play; reġn > rain; leġer > lair; leġde > laid; hēġ (WS hīeġ) > hay | |||
ēġV | /ei/ > /iː/ | /iː/ | /əi/ | /aɪ/ | ēage > ēġe > eye; lēogan > lēġan > to lie (deceive); flēoge > flēġe > fly |
iġ, īġ, yġ, ȳġ | /iː/ | tiġel > tile; liġe > (I) lie ("recline"); hīġian > to hie; ryġe > rye; byġe > (I) buy; drȳġe > dry | |||
æw, aw, agV | /au/ | /au/ | /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ | clawu > claw; lagu > law; dragan > to draw |
ǣw, ēaw, ew, eow | /ɛu/ | /ɛu/ | /juː/ | /(j)uː/ | mǣw > mew; lǣwede > lewd; scrēawa > shrew; dēaw > dew |
ēw, ēow | /eu/ | /iu/ | ċēowan > to chew; hrēowan > to rue; blēow > blew; trēowþ > truth | ||
iw, īw, yw, ȳw | /iu/ | hīw > hue; nīwe > new; trīewe (WS) > true; Tīwesdæġ > Tiwesdæġ > Tuesday | |||
āw, āgV, ow, ogV, ōw, ōgV | /ɔu/ | /ɔu/ | /ou/ > /oː/ | /əʊ/ (British), /oʊ/ (American) | cnāwan > to know; crāwa > crow; snāw > snow; sāwol > soul; āgan > to owe; āgen > own; grōwan > to grow; blōwen > blown; boga > bow /bou/; flogen > flown |
ugV, ūgV | /uː/ | /uː/ | /əu/ | /aʊ/ | fugol > fowl; drugaþ > drouth > drought; būgan > to bow /baʊ/ |
æh, ah, ag# | /auh/ | /auh/ | ([x] > ∅) /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ | slæht (WS sleaht) + -or > slaughter |
([x] > /f/) /af/ | /æf/, /ɑːf/ | hlæhtor > laughter | |||
eh | /ɛih/ | /ɛih/ | /ei/ > /eː/ | /eɪ/ | streht > straight |
ēh | /eih/ > /iːh/ | /iːh/ | /əi/ | /aɪ/ | hēah > hēh > high; þēoh > þēh > thigh; nēh > nigh |
ih, īh, yh, ȳh | /iːh/ | reht > riht > right; flyht > flight; līoht > līht > light | |||
āh, āg#, oh, og# | /ɔuh/ | /ɔuh/ | ([x] > ∅) /ou/ > /oː/ | /əʊ/ (British), /oʊ/ (American) | dāg > dāh > dough |
([x] > /f/) /ɔf/ | /ɒf/, /ɔːf/ | trog > trough | |||
āhC, ohC, ōhC | /ɔuh/ | /ɔuh/ | /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ | āhte > ought; dohtor > daughter; þoht > thought; sōhte > sought |
ōh#, ōg# | /ouh/ > /uːh/ | /uːh/ | ([x] > ∅) /əu/ | /aʊ/ | bōg > bough; plōg > plōh > plough |
([x] > /f/) /ʊf/ | (centralized) /ʌf/ | ġenōg, ġenōh > enough; tōh > tough; ruh > rough | |||
uh, ug#, ūh, ūg# | /uːh/ | (non-centralized) /ʊf/ | Weōcetun > Woughton |
This table describes the main changes from Late Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Germanic up through Old English, Middle English and Modern English. It focuses on the Old English and Middle English changes leading to the modern forms. Other tables are also available to cover specific areas in more detail:
This table only describes the changes in accented syllables. Vowel changes in unaccented syllables were very different and much more extensive. In general:
NOTE: The Old English words in this table are given in their Anglian form, since this is the form that underlies Modern English. However, standard Old English was based on the West Saxon dialect, and when the two dialects differ, the West Saxon form is indicated with a WS in parentheses following the Anglian form.
NOTE: In this table, abbreviations are used as follows:
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1"Pre-Germanic" in this context refers to a post-PIE language that maintains PIE phonology but with morphological adjustments made as necessary to account for the Proto-Germanic form. Reconstructions are only given for solidly reconstructible Proto-Indo-European roots.
Late PIE1 | Proto-Germanic1 | Condition | Old English | Middle English | Modern English | Examples | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
i-umlaut2 | i-umlaut2 | i-umlaut2 | |||||||
a, o, *h₂e, h₃e, H̥ | a | æ | e | /a/ | /e/ | /æ/; RP /ɑː/ | /ɛ/ | PG *paþaz > OE pæþ > "path"; PG *batizǫ̂ > OE betera > "better"; PG *taljaną > OE tellan > "to tell" | |
(leng.) /aː/ | /ɛː/ | /eɪ/ | /iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/ | PG *hwalaz > OE hwæl > "whale"; PG *matiz > OE, ME mete "food" > "meat"; PG *stadiz > OE, ME stede > "stead" | |||||
(+g) /ai/ | /ɛi/ > /ai/ | /eɪ/ | /eɪ/ | PG *dagaz > OE dæġ > "day" | |||||
(+h) /au/ | /ɛu/ | /ɔː/; /æf/ | /(j)uː/ | PG *hlahtraz > OE hlæhtor (WS hleahtor) > "laughter"; PG *slahtiz > OE sleht (WS slieht) > ME sleight "slaughter" | |||||
+n,m | a,o | e | /a/ (occ. /o/) | /e/ | /æ/; occ. GA /ɔ/, RP /ɒ/ | /ɛ/ | PG *mannz, manniz > OE man, mon > "man", plur. men > "men"; PG *hamuraz > OE hamor > "hammer"; PG *handuz > OE hand > "hand"; PG *sange > OE past sang > "sang"; PG *lambaz > OE lamb > "lamb"; Latin candēla > OE candel > "candle"; PG *gandrǫ̂ > OE gandra > "gander"; PG *langaz > OE lang, long > "long"; PG *sandijaną > OE sendan > "send"; PG *bankiz > OE benċ > "bench"; PG *hanjō > OE henn > "hen" | ||
(leng.) /aː/ | /ɛː/ | /eɪ/ | /iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/ | PG *namǫ̂ > OE nama > "name"; PG lamǫ̂ > OE lama > "lame"; PG *banǫ̂ > OE bana "slayer" > "bane" | |||||
+mf,nþ,ns | ō | ē | /oː/ | /eː/ | /uː/; /ʌ/; /ʊ/ | /iː/ | PreG *donts, dontes > PG *tanþz, tanþiz > OE tōþ > "tooth", plur. tēþ > "teeth"; PG *gans, gansiz > OE gōs > "goose", plur. gēs > "geese"; PG *anþaraz > OE ōþer > "other" | ||
(+CC) /o/ | /e/ | GA /ɔ/, RP /ɒ/; GA /ɔː/ | /ɛ/ | PG *samftijaz, samftô > OE sēfte, *sōfta >! OE sōfte > "soft"; PG *anstiz > OE ēst "favor" > ME "este" | |||||
+lC | a | æ > e | /a/ | /e/ | /ɔː/ | /ɛ/ | PG *fallaną > OE fallan (WS feallan) > "to fall"; PG *fallijaną > OE fællan > fellan (WS fiellan) > "to fell" | ||
(+ld) /ɔː/ | /ɛː/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ | /iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/ | PG *aldaz, aldizǫ̂ > OE ald (WS eald) > "old", ældra (WS ieldra) "older" > "elder"; PG *haldaną > OE haldan (WS healdan) > "to hold" | |||||
+rc,rg,rh | æ > e | e | /e/ | /e/ | GA /ɑ/(+r), RP /ɑː/ | GA /ɑ/(+r), RP /ɑː/ | Latin arca > OE erc (WS earc) > "ark" | ||
+rC (C not c,g,h) | ea | e | /a/ | /e/ | GA /ɑ/(+r), RP /ɑː/ | GA /ɑ/(+r), RP /ɑː/ | PG *harduz > OE heard > "hard" | ||
before a,o,u | a | (by analogy) æ | /a/ | /a/ | /æ/; RP /ɑː/ | /æ/; (RP) /ɑː/ | Latin cattus > OE catt > "cat" | ||
(leng.) /aː/ | /aː/ | /eɪ/ | /eɪ/ | PG *talō > OE talu > "tale"; PG *bakaną, -iþi > OE bacan > "to bake", 3rd sing. pres. indic. bæcþ "bakes" | |||||
(+g,w) /au/ | /au/ | /ɔː/ | /ɔː/ | PG plur. *dagôs > OE dagas "days" > dial. "dawes"; PG *laguz > OE lagu > "law"; PG *clawō > OE clawu > "claw" | |||||
before later a,o,u | ea | eo | /a/ | /e/ | /æ/; (RP) /ɑː/ | /ɛ/ | |||
(leng.) /aː/ | /ɛː/ | /eɪ/ | /iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/ | PG *alu(þ) > OE ealu > "ale"; PG *asiluz > OE eosol (WS esol) "donkey" | |||||
(+g,w) /au/ | /ɛu/ | /ɔː/ | /(j)uː/ | PG *awī > OE eowu > "ewe" | |||||
before hs,ht,hþ + final -iz | N/A | i (occ. ie) | N/A | /i/ | N/A | /aɪ/ | PIE *nokwtis > PG *nahtiz > OE nieht > OE niht > "night" | ||
e, *h₁e, occ. i+C*e,a,o | e | e | N/A | /e/ | N/A | /ɛ/ | N/A | PIE *nizdos > PG *nestaz > OE nest > "nest"; PG *helpaną > OE helpan > "to help"; PG *fehtaną > OE fehtan (WS feohtan) "to fight" (irreg.); PG *berkaną > OE bercan (WS beorcan) > "to bark" | |
(leng.) /ɛː/ | N/A | /iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/ | N/A | PG *brekaną > OE brecan > "to break"; PG *ebnaz > OE ef(e)n > "even"; OE feþer > "feather" | |||||
(+g,h) /ɛi/ > /aɪ/ | N/A | /eɪ/ | N/A | PG *wegaz > OE weġ > "way"; PG *regnaz > OE reġn > "rain"; PG *seglaz > OE seġl > "sail" | |||||
(+ld) /eː/ | N/A | /iː/ | N/A | PG *felduz > OE feld > "field"; PG *geldaną > OE ġeldan (WS ġieldan) "to pay" > "to yield" | |||||
+m | i | N/A | /i/ | N/A | /ɪ/ | N/A | PG *remǫ̂ > OE rima > "rim"; PG *nemaną > OE niman "to take" > archaic "to nim" | ||
(leng.) /eː/ | N/A | /iː/ | N/A | ||||||
+rC (C not c,g,h); wV; C (C not c,g) +later a,o,u | eo | N/A | /e/ | N/A | /ɛ/; (+r) GA /ɑ/(+r), RP /ɑː/ | N/A | PG *werþaną > OE weorðan "to become"; PG *hertǭ > OE heorte > "heart" | ||
(leng.) /ɛː/ | N/A | /iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/ | N/A | PG *etaną > OE eotan (WS etan) > "to eat"; PG *beraną > OE beoran (WS beran) > "to bear" | |||||
(+w) /ɛu/ | N/A | /(j)uː/ | N/A | ||||||
+ late final hs,ht,hþ | i (occ. ie) | N/A | /i/ | N/A | /ɪ/ | N/A | PG *sehs > OE siex > "six"; PG *rehtaz > OE riht > "right" | ||
i, (h₁)e+C*i, (h₁)e+C*y, (h₁)e+nC | i | i | i | /i/ | /i/ | /ɪ/ | /ɪ/ | PG *fiską > OE fisċ > "fish"; PG *hringaz > OE hring > "ring"; PG *bidjaną > OE biddan "to pray" > "to bid"; PG *itiþi > OE 3rd sing. pres. indic. iteþ "eats"; PG *skiriþi > OE 3rd sing. pres. indic. sċirþ (WS sċierþ) "shears"; PG *stihtōjaną > OE stihtian "to establish" | |
(leng.) /eː/ | /eː/ | /iː/ | /iː/ | PG *wikō > OE wicu > "week" | |||||
(+g) /iː/ | /iː/ | /aɪ/ | /aɪ/ | Latin tegula > OE tiġele > "tile"; PG *brigdilaz > OE briġdel > "bridle" | |||||
(+ld,nd) /iː/ | /iː/ | /aɪ/ | /aɪ/ | PG *blindaz > OE blind > "blind" /blaɪnd/; PG *kildaz (plur. *kildōzō) OE ċild > "child" /tʃaɪld/; PG *wildijaz > OE wilde > "wild" /waɪld/ | |||||
+ mf,nþ,ns | ī | ī | /iː/ | /iː/ | /aɪ/ | /aɪ/ | PG *fimf > OE fīf > "five"; PG *linþijō > OE līþe "gentle" > "lithe" | ||
(+CC) /i/ | /i/ | /ɪ/ | /ɪ/ | PG *fimf tigiwiz > OE fīftiġ > "fifty" | |||||
+rC (C not c,g,h); w | io > eo | i | /e/ | /i/ | /ɛ/ | /ɪ/ | PG *liznōjaną > OE liornian > OE leornian > "learn"; PG *a + firrijaną > OE afirran (WS afierran) "to remove" (cf. feorr "far") | ||
(+w) /eu/ > /iu/ | /iu/ | /(j)uː/ | /(j)uː/ | PG *niwulaz > OE niowul, neowul "prostrate"; PG *spiwiz > OE spiwe "vomiting"; PG *hiwiz > OE hīw > "hue" | |||||
before a,o,u | i (io, eo) | N/A | /i/ (/e/) | N/A | /ɪ/ (/ɛ/) | N/A | PG *milukz > OE mioluc,meolc > "milk" | ||
(leng.) /eː/ (/ɛː/) | N/A | /iː/ (/iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/) | N/A | ||||||
(+g) /iː/ (/ɛi/ > /ai/) | /iː/ | /ai/ (/eɪ/) | /aɪ/ | ||||||
u, *n̥(H), *m̥(H), *l̥(H), *r̥(H)3 | u | u | y | /u/ | /i/ | /ʌ/; /ʊ/ | /ɪ/ | PG *sunuz > OE sunu > "son"; PG *kumaną, -iþi > OE cuman > "to come", 3rd sing. pres. indic. cymþ "comes"; PG *guldijaną > OE gyldan > "to gild" | |
(leng.) /oː/ | /eː/ | /uː/; /ʌ/; /ʊ/; (+r) GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ | /iː/ | PreG *dhurus > PG *duruz > OE duru > "door"; PG *widuz > OE widu >! OE wudu > "wood"; PG *ubilaz > OE yfel > "evil" | |||||
(+g) /uː/ | /iː/ | /aʊ/ | /aɪ/ | OE ryġe > "rye" | |||||
(+w) /uː/ | /iu/ | /aʊ/ | /(j)uː/ | ||||||
+ mf,nþ,ns | ū | ȳ | /uː/ | /iː/ | /aʊ/ | /aɪ/ | PG *munþz > OE mūþ > "mouth"; PG *kunþijaną > OE cȳþan "to make known" > ME "kithe" | ||
(+CC) /u/ | /i/ | /ʌ/; /ʊ/ | /ɪ/ | PG *tunskaz > OE tūsc > "tusk"; PG *wunskijaną > OE wȳsċan > "wish"; PG *kunþiþō > OE cȳþþ(u) > "kith" | |||||
before non-nasal + a,e,o | o | (by analogy) e | /o/ | /e/ | GA /ɔ/, RP /ɒ/ | /ɛ/ | PG *drupǫ̂ > OE dropa > "drop"; PG *fulką > OE folc > "folk" | ||
(leng.) /ɔː/ | /ɛː/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/; (+r) GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ | /iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/ | PG *fulǫ̂ > OE fola > "foal"; PG *nusuz (*nusōu?) > OE nosu > "nose"; PG *hupōjaną > OE hopian > "to hope" | |||||
(+g,h,w) /ɔu/ | /ɛi/ > /ai/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/; GA /ɔːf/, RP /ɒf/ | /eɪ/ | PG *duhter, duhtriz > OE dohter > "daughter", plur. dehter "daughters"; PG *trugaz > OE trog > "trough"; PG *bugǫ̂ > OE boga > "bow" /boʊ/ | |||||
(+ld,rd) /ɔː/ | /ɛː/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/; (+r) GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ | /iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/ | PG *guldaz > OE gold > "gold"; PG *burdą > OE bord > "board" | |||||
ē(H), eh₁ | ǣ > ā | ē | ē | /eː/ | /eː/ | /iː/ | /iː/ | PG *slǣpaną > OE slēpan (WS slǣpan) > "to sleep", Latin strāta > OE strēt (WS strǣt) > "street"; PG *dǣdiz > OE dēd (WS dǣd) > "deed"; Latin cāseus > OE ċēse (WS ċīese) > "cheese" | |
(+CC) /e/ | /e/ | /ɛ/ | /ɛ/ | ||||||
(+g,h) /iː/ | /iː/ | /aɪ/ | /aɪ/ | PG *nǣhaz, nǣhistaz > OE nēh (WS nēah) "near" > "nigh", superl. nēhst (WS nīehst) "nearest" > "next" | |||||
+n,m | ō | ē | /oː/ | /eː/ | /uː/ | /iː/ | PG *mǣnǫ̂ > OE mōna > "moon"; PG *kwǣniz > OE kwēn > "queen" | ||
+w; ga,go,gu | ā | ǣ | /ɔː/ | /ɛː/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ | /iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/ | |||
(+g) /ɔu/ | /ɛi/ > /ai/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ | /eɪ/ | PG *mǣgôz > OE māgas "relatives" | |||||
(+w) /ɔu/ | /ɛu/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ | /(j)uː/ | PG *knǣwaną, -iþi > OE cnāwan > "to know", 3rd sing. pres. indic. cnǣwþ "knows" | |||||
ēi, iz, etc.4 | ē | ē | ē | /eː/ | /eː/ | /iː/ | /iː/ | PG *hēr > OE hēr > "here"; PIE *mizdhā > PG *mēdō > OE mēd "reward" | |
(+g,h) /iː/ | /iː/ | /aɪ/ | /aɪ/ | OE past hēht "called" > "hight" | |||||
(+w) /eu/ > /iu/ | /eu/ > /iu/ | /(j)uː/ | /(j)uː/ | ||||||
ā, ō, aH, oH, eh₂, eh₃; an+K, on+K, h₂en+K, h₃en+K | ō; ą̄+h | ō | ē | /oː/ | /eː/ | /uː/; /ʌ/; /ʊ/ | /iː/ | PG *fōtz, fōtiz > OE fōt > "foot", plur. fēt > "feet" | |
(+CC) /o/ | /e/ | GA /ɔ/, RP /ɒ/; GA /ɔː/ | /ɛ/ | PG *kōpi-dǣþ > OE cēpte > "kept"; PG *mōti-dǣþ > OE mētte > "met" | |||||
(+g,h) /uː/ | /iː/ | /aʊ/; /ʌf/ | /aɪ/ | PG *swōganą > OE swōgan "to sound" > ME /suːə/ > "sough" /saʊ/; PG *bōgaz > OE bōg > ME /buːh/ > "bough" /baʊ/; PG *tōhaz > OE tōh > ME /tuːh/ > "tough" /tʌf/; PG past *sōh-dǣþ > OE sōhte > ME /sɔuhtə/ > "sought" | |||||
(+w) /ɔu/ | /eu/ > /iu/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ | /(j)uː/ | PG *grōwaną > OE grōwan > "grow" | |||||
(h₁)ei, ī, iH; (h₁)en+K, in+K | ī; į̄+h | ī | ī | /iː/ | /iː/ | /aɪ/ | /aɪ/ | PG *wībą > OE wīf > "wife"; PG *līhiþi > 3rd sing. pres. indic. līþ (WS līehþ) "lends"; PIE *lengwhtos > PG *lį̄htaz > OE līht (WS lēoht) > "light" (in weight) | |
(+CC) /i/ | /i/ | /ɪ/ | /ɪ/ | ||||||
(+g,h) /iː/ | /iː/ | /aɪ/ | /aɪ/ | PG *hīgōjaną > OE hīgian > "hie" | |||||
(+w) /iu/ | /iu/ | /(j)uː/ | /(j)uː/ | PG *Tīwaz > OE Tīw (name of a god) + -es "'s" + dæġ "day" > "Tuesday" | |||||
ū, uH; *n̥+K, un+K | ū; ų̄+h | ū | ȳ | /uː/ | /iː/ | /aʊ/ | /aɪ/ | PG *mūs, mūsiz > OE mūs "mouse", plur. mȳs > "mice"; PG *hūdijaną > OE hȳdan > "to hide" | |
(+CC) /u/ | /i/ | /ʌ/; /ʊ/ | /ɪ/ | PG *rūstaz > OE rūst > "rust"; *pn̥kʷstis > PG *fų̄hstiz > OE fȳst > "fist" | |||||
(+g,h) /uː/ | /iː/ | /aʊ/; /ʌf/ | /aɪ/ | PG *būganą > OE būgan "to bend" > "bow"; PG *rūhaz > OE rūh > "rough" /rʌf/; PG *drūgijaz > OE drȳge > "dry" | |||||
(+w) /uː/ | /iu/ | /aʊ/ | /(j)uː/ | OE trūwian "to trust" > archaic "trow" /traʊ/ | |||||
ai, oi, h₂ei, h₃ei | ai | ā | ǣ | /ɔː/ | /ɛː/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/; (+r) GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ | /iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/ | PG *stainaz > OE stān > "stone"; PreG perfect *roidhe > PG past *raide > OE rād > "rode"; PreG *oyerā > PG *airō > OE ār > "oar"; PIE *ayes > PG *aiz > OE ār "bronze" > "ore"; PG *hwaitiją > OE hwǣte > "wheat" | |
(+CC) /a/ | /a/ | /æ/; RP /ɑː/ | /æ/; RP /ɑː/ | PG *faittiz > OE fǣtt > "fat" | |||||
(+g,h) /ɔu/ | /ɛi/ > /ai/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ | /eɪ/ | PG *aiganą > OE āgan > "owe"; PG *daigaz > OE dāg, dāh > "dough" | |||||
(+w) /ɔu/ | /ɛu/ | GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ | /(j)uː/ | PG *maiwiz > OE mǣw > "mew" | |||||
au, ou, h₂eu, h₃eu | au | ēa | ē | /ɛː/ | /eː/ | /iː/; /eɪ/; /ɛ/ | /iː/ | PG *auzǭ > OE ēare > "ear"; PG *hauzijaną > OE hēran (WS hīeran) > "to hear" | |
(+w) /ɛu/ | /eu/ > /iu/ | /(j)uː/ | /(j)uː/ | PG *skrawwǫ̂ > OE sċrēawa > ME "shrewe" > "shrew" | |||||
+c,g,h; rc,rg,rh;lc,lg,lh | ē | ē | /eː/ | /eː/ | /iː/ | /iː/ | PG *auke(?), *aukijaną > OE ēc, ēċan (WS ēac, īeċan) "also, to increase" > ME "eke, eche" > "eke" (archaic), "to eke" | ||
(+g,h) /iː/ | /iː/ | /aɪ/ | /aɪ/ | PG *augǭ > OE ēġe (WS ēage) > "eye"; PG *hauhaz, hauhistaz > OE hēh (WS hēah) > "high", superl. hēhst (WS hīehst) "highest" | |||||
(h₁)eu | eu | ēo | N/A | /eː/ | N/A | /iː/ | N/A | PG *deupaz > OE dēop > "deep"; PG *beudaną > OE bēodan "to command" | |
(+w) /eu/ > /iu/ | N/A | /(j)uː/ | N/A | PG *hrewwaną > OE hrēowan > "to rue" | |||||
+c,g,h; rc,rg,rh; lc,lg,lh | ē | N/A | /eː/ | N/A | /iː/ | N/A | PG *reukaną > OE rēcan (WS rēocan) > "to reek" | ||
(+g,h) /iː/ | N/A | /aɪ/ | N/A | PG *fleugǭ > OE flēge (WS flēoge) > "fly"; PG *leuganą > OE lēgan (WS lēogan) > "to lie"; PIE *leuktos > PG *leuhtaz > OE lēht (WS lēoht) > "light" (brightness) | |||||
(h₁)eu+C*i, (h₁)eu+C*y | iu | N/A | īo > ēo | N/A | /eː/ | N/A | /iː/ | PIE *newios > PG *niujaz > OE nīwe > "new"; PG *biudiþi > 3rd sing. pres. indic. bīott (WS bīett) "commands" | |
(+w) N/A | /eu/ > /iu/ | N/A | /(j)uː/ | PG *triwwiz > *triwwijaz > OE trīowe, trēowe > ME "trewe" > "true" | |||||
+c,g,h; rc,rg,rh; lc,lg,lh | N/A | ī | N/A | /iː/ | /aɪ/ | /aɪ/ | PIE *leuktionom > PG *liuhtijaną > OE līhtan (WS līehtan) "to light" |
1A + separates the sounds that produced the Proto-Germanic vowels in question from the sounds that formed the conditioning environment. The notation C* means a sequence of zero or more consonants.
2I-umlaut refers to a sound change that took place around 500 AD with pervasive effects on English vowels. Specifically, vowels were fronted or raised whenever an /i/ or /j/ followed in the next syllable. Nearly every vowel was affected. Affected vocabulary is shown in a different color.
3 PIE *n̥ and *n̥H became Proto-Germanic un; similarly for *m̥, *l̥ and *r̥. K refers to either of the PIE sounds ḱ or k, which fell together in Proto-Germanic and the other centum languages; or to any of the nine PIE velars when followed directly by a voiceless consonant (especially t). H refers to any laryngeal sound. The ogonek (e.g. ą, ǭ) indicates a nasal vowel. Long vowels are noted with a macron (e.g. ē, ō). Extralong vowels are noted with a circumflex (e.g. ô).
4 The origins of Proto-Germanic ē are somewhat in dispute.
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: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)