The earliest surviving account of the celebration of the Eucharist or the Mass in Rome is that of Saint Justin Martyr (died c. 165), in chapter 67 of his First Apology:^[1]

On the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons.

In chapter 65, Justin Martyr says that the kiss of peace was given before the bread and the wine mixed with water were brought to "the president of the brethren". The initial liturgical language used was Greek, before approximately the year 190 under Pope Victor, when the Church in Rome changed from Greek to Latin, except in particular for the Hebrew word "Amen", whose meaning Justin explains in Greek (γένοιτο), saying that by it "all the people present express their assent" when the president of the brethren "has concluded the prayers and thanksgivings".^[2]

Also, in Chapter 66 of Justin Martyr's First Apology, he describes the change which occurs on the altar: "For not as common bread nor common drink do we receive these; but since Jesus Christ our Saviour was made incarnate by the word of God and had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so too, as we have been taught, the food which has been made into the Eucharist by the Eucharistic prayer set down by him, and by the change of which our blood and flesh is nurtured, is both the flesh and the blood of that incarnated Jesus". (First Apology 66:1–20 [AD 148]).

It is unclear when the language of the celebration finished changing from Greek to Latin. Pope Victor I (190–202), may have been the first to use Latin in the liturgy in Rome. Others think Latin was finally adopted nearly a century later.^{[note 1]} The change was probably gradual, with both languages being used for a while.^{[note 2]}

Before the pontificate of Pope Gregory I (590–604), the Roman Mass rite underwent many changes, including a "complete recasting of the Canon" (a term that in this context means the Anaphora or Eucharistic Prayer).^{[note 3]}

With regard to the Roman Canon of the Mass, the prayers beginning Te igitur, Memento Domine and Quam oblationem were already in use, even if not with quite the same wording as now, by the year 400; the Communicantes, the Hanc igitur, and the post-consecration Memento etiam and Nobis quoque were added in the fifth century.^[3][4]

Towards the end of the eighth century Charlemagne ordered the Roman rite of Mass to be used throughout his domains. However, some elements of the preceding Gallican rites were fused with it north of the Alps, and the resulting mixed rite was introduced into Rome under the influence of the emperors who succeeded Charlemagne. Gallican influence is responsible for the introduction into the Roman rite of dramatic and symbolic ceremonies such as the blessing of candles, ashes, palms, and much of the Holy Week ritual.^[5]

The chants and musical settings of the Mass were divided into

• the parts that do not change during the year (the Ordinary: the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei), and
• the parts that belonged to the particular day and occasion (the Proper): Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Offertory, Communion.^[6]

The recitation of the Credo (Nicene Creed) after the Gospel is attributed to the influence of Emperor Henry II (1002–24). Gallican influence explains the practice of incensing persons, introduced in the eleventh or twelfth century; "before that time incense was burned only during processions (the entrance and Gospel procession)".^[7] Private prayers for the priest to say before Communion were another novelty. About the thirteenth century, an elaborate ritual and additional prayers of French origin were added to the Offertory: previously, the only prayer said by the priest was the Secret; these prayers varied considerably until fixed by Pope Pius V in 1570.^{[note 4]} Pope Pius V also introduced the Prayers at the Foot of the Altar, previously said mostly in the sacristy or during the procession to the altar as part of the priest's preparation, and also for the first time formally admitted into the Mass all that follows the Ite missa est in his edition of the Roman Missal. Later editions of the Roman Missal abbreviated this part by omitting the Canticle of the Three Young Men and Psalm 150, followed by other prayers, that in Pius V's edition the priest was to say while leaving the altar.^[8]

Between 1478 and 1501, the bishops of 52 dioceses, including the primates of France, Castile, England, the Holy Roman Empire and Poland, each independently published official liturgical texts for their diocese, because of the extent of parish and monastery variation. ^{[note 5]} In some places, this involved stripping variations back to the Cathedral's missal; however in others it involved adding material for new saints, offices and customs.

From 1474 until Pope Pius V's 1570 text, there were at least 14 different printed editions that purported to present the text of the Mass as celebrated in Rome, rather than elsewhere, and which therefore were published under the title of "Roman Missal". These were produced in Milan, Venice, Paris and Lyon. Even these show variations. Local Missals, such as the Parisian Missal, of which at least 16 printed editions appeared between 1481 and 1738, showed more important differences.^[9]

Other rites edit

Apart from the Roman rite, before 1570 many other liturgical rites were in use, not only in the East, but also in the West. Some Latin liturgical rites, such as the Mozarabic Rite, were unrelated to the Roman Rite which Pope Pius V revised and ordered to be adopted generally, and even areas that had accepted the Roman rite had introduced changes and additions. As a result, every ecclesiastical province and almost every diocese had its local use, such as the Use of Sarum, the Use of York and the Use of Hereford in England. In France there were strong traces of the Gallican Rite. With the exception of the relatively few places where no form of the Roman Rite had ever been adopted, the Canon of the Mass remained generally uniform, but the prayers in the "Ordo Missae", and still more the "Proprium Sanctorum" and the "Proprium de Tempore", varied widely.^[10]

Languages edit

In most countries, the language used for celebrating Pre-Tridentine Masses was Latin, which had become the language of the Roman liturgy in the late 4th century. However, there have been exceptions:^[11]

• In Dalmatia and parts of Istria in Croatia, the Roman Rite liturgy was celebrated in Old Church Slavonic from the time of Cyril and Methodius, and authorization for use of this language was extended to some other Slavic regions between 1886 and 1935.^{[note 6][note 7]}
• In the 14th century, Dominican missionaries converted a monastery near Qrna, Armenia to Catholicism, and translated the liturgical books of the Dominican Rite, a variant of the Roman Rite, into Armenian for the community's use. The monks were deterred from becoming members of the Dominican Order itself by the severe fasting requirements of the Dominican Constitutions, as well as the prohibition on owning any land other than that on which the monastery stood, and therefore became the Order of the United Friars of St. Gregory the Illuminator, a new order confirmed by Pope Innocent VI in 1356 whose Constitutions were similar to the Dominicans' except for these two laws. This order established monasteries over a vast amount of territory in Greater and Lesser Armenia, Persia, and Georgia, using the Dominican Rite in Armenian until the end of the order's existence in 1794.^[12][11]
• On February 25, 1398, Pope Boniface IX also authorized Maximus Chrysoberges to found a monastery in Greece where Mass would be celebrated in Greek according to the Dominican Rite, and Manuel Chrysoloras translated the Dominican missal into Greek in pursuance of the plan, but nothing further is known of this undertaking.^[12][11]

Vernacular and laity in the medieval and Reformation eras edit

In the Carolingian period, the mass was increasingly performed as sacred drama, with the people as active participants not passive spectators:^[13]: 460 Archbishop Amalarius of Metz (c.830) was accused of imparting "theatrical elements and stage mannerisms" to the Frankish liturgy.^[14]

The medieval lay experience was often highly sensory:^[15] churches featured singing, bells, high-tech organs, incense, paintings, brilliant robes, rare colours, shiny utensils, clouds of saints and angels, and stained-glass light, not to mention the taste of the host, the splashing of baptism, or even, perhaps, the feel of the silk of the priest's violet stole in absolution.^{[note 8]} Some larger churches even had articulated puppet/statues to delight and inspire the congregation.^[16]

Historian Viginia Reinburg has noted that the medieval eucharistic liturgy as experienced by (French) lay people, and shown in their prayer books, was a distinct experience from that of the clergy and the clerical missal.^[17]: 529

"What the lay prayer books reveal—and missals do not—is the pre-Reformation mass as a ritual drama in which the priests and the congregation had distinct, but equally necessary parts to play."^[17]: 530

— Reinberg

The priest attended to the ceremony:

"For the priest, the most important important parts of the mass would be scripture readings, offertory of bread and wine, consecration, and priest's communion."^[17]: 532

— Reinberg

The laity enjoyed the ceremony:

For the lay congregation, however, the mass was a series of collective devotions and ritual actions; the most important elements would be the Gospel, prône ("bidding prayers", see below), offertory procession, and distribution of the French: pain bénit at the end of the mass.…The laity's mass was less sacrifice and sacrament than a communal rite of greeting, sharing, giving, receiving and making peace."^{[17]: 532 [note 9]}

— Reinberg

Lay prayer-books, for the educated middle and upper classes, not only gave the communal actions of the liturgy, but provided almost an unofficial parallel liturgy of silent prayers and devotions for the laity to perform in between and in preparation for the actions.^[18]: 59

"For the congregation, which would not have heard the sacred words "This is my body", the elevation was the emotional climax of the mass. It was also the focus of popular liturgical devotion. Virtually no lay books actually explain the consecration…(or) the doctrine of transubstantiation.…Yet the ritual of the elevation was intended to express the real presence of Christ on the altar."^[17]: 533

— Reinberg

Notable parts of the lay experience of the liturgy (especially the Sunday mass) included:

• The Prône (French: Prières du Prône, German: Pronaus, Latin: pronaüm) mentioned above was a vernacular service that came to be included as a para-liturgy in medieval Latin High Masses (typically at the Sermon), dating back at least to Regino of Prüm (d.915).^[19]: 487 It was named after the screen at the chancel entrance, where the priest would speak in the local language.^[20]: 118 It could include well-known prayers, translations of the Gospel and Epistle, the homily nominally on the Gospel, catechetical instruction,^{[21][22]: 721} comprehensive prayers for the living and the dead,^{[note 10]: 352} acknowledging benefactors, open confession (for venial sins),^[19]: 493 teaching the diocese's domestic morning prayer,^[23]: 142 announcements including weddings, upcoming fasts and feasts,^[19]: 491 village assembly meetings, royal or seigneurial decrees of note, and salutory crime reports.^[24]: 281 It was regarded as vital by laypeople even into the post-Reformation period.^[22]: 727

It was universally folded into the Sunday mass by the Council of Trent and with collated bidding prayers such as Peter Canisius' German: Allgemeines Gebet.^[25] (In Ireland (c. 1785), "the prône" became the name for a book of prepared sermons and prayers which were "a key tool in remodelling older oral versions of the (vernacular portion of the) liturgy to newer standardised ones."^[26]: 93)

• It was the common practice^{[note 11]} that at the beginning of the vernacular homily (sermon), the Gospel reading and perhaps the Epistle reading would be rendered loosely in the vernacular by the priest.^{[19]: 408  [27]}
• At times, vernacular hymns were sung.^{[19]: 147, 440} For example, a German: Leis hymm, sung after the sermon from the 12th Century.^[19]: 486
• The pain bénit was bread given in the general offering by the laity, blessed by the priest, and given back to the laity for devotional use and as alms, especially when lay communion was infrequent.
• Another sacramental activity performed with the laity was the kiss of peace and pax-board with its emphasis on mutual forgiveness.^[17]: 539

Legacy edit

The Pre-Tridentine Mass survived post-Trent in some Anglican and Lutheran areas with some local modification from the basic Roman rite until the time when worship switched to the vernacular. Dates of switching to the vernacular, in whole or in part, varied widely by location. In some Lutheran areas this took three hundred years, as choral liturgies were sung by schoolchildren who were learning Latin.^[28]

This table is indicative. Depending on calendar, occasion, participants, region and period, some parts might be augmented or commented on (tropes)^[29] or removed or rearranged or varied from standard forms. The specific collects, readings, sequences, psalms, saints, blessings, and performance instructions (or rubrics), similarly vary. The Canon of the Mass (the key section with consecration and elevation) had less textual variation in the West, and often was the standard Roman Canon.

Such local variants are called Uses (of a Rite) when relatively minor, or a new Rite when relatively major, and typically reflect the living practice at a cathedral, whose liturgical books might then be copied by other dioceses. Mixing was common: a cathedral might adopt the Liturgy from one Rite, but keep its traditional Rubrics, Sequences etc., and use the Psalms or Calendar of some other rite. Over time, the parts may be grouped or re-named to reflect the contemporary theological or pastoral priorities, but were typically known by the first words of the Latin of the prayer.

For example, the Ambrosian Rite has different prayers, prefaces, readings, calendar and vestments to the Roman Rite. It omits the Agnus Dei. The Gesture of Peace occurs before the Offertory.^[30][31]

Note: Below, "Gifts" primarily means the unconsecrated bread, wine and water.

• Catholic Church
• Eucharist in the Catholic Church
• The Mass
• Catholic particular churches and liturgical rites

Western Catholic edit

• Latin liturgical rites
  • Roman Rite
    • Post-Tridentine Mass
      • Novus ordo - Mass of Paul VI (c.1970)
        • Roman Missal
          • Eucharastic Prayer I - Roman Canon
          • Eucharistic Prayer II - Apostolic Tradition of Hypolytus ^[36][37]
          • Eucharistic Prayer III -
          • Eucharistic Prayer IV - Antiochene anaphora esp. of Saint Basil
        • Zaire Use
      • Ex-Anglican Use
        • Divine Worship: The Missal
          • Eucharastic Prayer I - Roman Canon
          • Eucharistic Prayer II
    • Tridentine Mass
      • Missale Romanum of Pius V(1570)
        • Updates: 1604, 1634, 1884, 1920, 1955
      • Roman Missal of John XXIII (1962)
        • Updates: 1965, 1967
      • Algonquian and Iroquoian Uses
    • Pre-Tridentine (Roman Rite) Mass
      • Mass of Gregory I (c.600)
      • Ordines Romani^[38][39]
      • Uses in Rome^[40]
        • Liturgy of the Roman Curia
        • Liturgy of St Peter's Basilica
        • Liturgy of Lateran Basilica
        • Liturgy of Orsini
      • Use of Sarum
        • Use of Norway (Nidaros)^[41]
      • Use of York
      • Use of Hereford
      • Use of Lyon
      • Use of Prague^[42]
      • Use of Norman Sicily (French Use)^[43]
      • Church Slavonic
        • Missal of Duke Novak (1368)^[40]
  • Romano-Germanic
    • Norbertine Rite
  • Cistercian Rite
    • Romano-Cistercian Rite
  • Romano-Gallican
    • Traditional Ambrosian Rite
      • Ambrosian Rite
    • Aquileian Rite
    • Bragan Rite
    • Carthusian Rite
    • Jerusalem Rite
      • Carmelite Rite
    • Celtic Rite
      • Stowe Missal
      • Use of Bangor^[32]
    • Dominican Rite
    • Durham Rite
    • Frankish (Merovingian) rite
      • Gelasian Sacramentary
      • Bobbio Missal
  • Hispano-Gallican
    • Gallican Rite
      • Missale Gothicum
    • Mozarabic Rite
      • Missale Aboense
  • African Rite

Eastern Catholic edit

• Eastern Catholic liturgical rites
• Antiochene Rite
  • Clementine Liturgy - Liturgy of the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions
  • Byzantine Rite
    • Anaphora of Saint James
    • Anaphora of Saint John Chrysostom
    • Anaphora of Saint Basil
  • West Syriac Rite
    • Malankara Rite
• Hagiopolite rite (Holy Sepulchre)
  • Armenian Rite
• Alexandrian liturgical rites
  • Coptic Rite
    • (Coptic) Anaphora of Saint Basil
  • Ge'ez Rite
• Chaldean liturgical rites
  • East Syriac Rite
    • Liturgy of Addai and Mari

Sources edit

• Sodi, Manlio; Triacca, Achille Maria, eds. (1998). Missale Romanum [Roman missal] (in Latin) (Princeps ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. ISBN 88-209-2547-8.

• Atchley, E. G. (1905), Ordo Romanus Primus, Archive.
• Usuarium, A Digital Library and Database for the Study of Latin Liturgical History in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period