So far, Sungor phonology is not well attested in literature and research.

Vowels edit

Sungor is most likely a tonal language with a high and low tone, e.g. 'worm' dút and 'big' dùt.^[7] It has seven vowels and height assimilations.^[8][3] Examples for height assimilation include plural suffixes -u,-uk, and -uɲ which trigger the root vowel /a/ to be raised to /ɔ/ as in 'raven' gárá changing into 'ravens' gɔrú . Another example are suffixes -i and -iŋ which trigger the root vowel /a/ to be raised to /ɛ/ as in 'house' wál changing into 'houses' wἐlί. ^[8]

Consonants edit

• Final position plosives are neutralized.^[7]
• The voiced palatal nasal /ɲ/ may exist as well.^[7]
• /r/ may be articulated as a trill or tap.^[7]
• /f/ and /h/ are infrequent in native words.^[7] 80% of words with word-initial /f/ are of Arabic origin.^[2] Word final /h/ is rare.^[7]
• /ɣ/ seems to be adopted from Arabic.^[7]
• Sungor appears to show gemination, though this is still underresearched.^[7]

Source:^[3]

^{Apart from some examples listed in the phonology tab, all words are spelled according to Lukas/Nachtigal with some limitations caused by a lack of certain characters on Wikipedia. Due to historical reasons, spelling roughly follows German spelling rules.[3]}

Noun classes edit

Sungor, like Tama, follows a noun class system. Similarly to other Sudanese languages that also use noun classes, Sungor distinguishes meaning through the use of suffixes. However, there is little overlap between the suffixes used.

Plurals edit

Plurals are mostly formed by suffixion. Suffixes change depending on class and number. Lukas^[3] lists 31 different suffix pairs which do not necessarily constitute separate noun classes.^[3] There are six ways of forming plurals in Sungor:

1. Most plurals are formed by changing the class suffix. Some examples are 'skin' gera | geriŋ (Singular -a, Plural -iŋ), 'love' tárī | tárā (Sg. -ī, Pl. -ā), 'name' iget | igā (Sg. -et, Pl. -ā), or arabic loan 'muslim person' miselem | muselmīn (Pl. -īn).
2. Other plurals only take a suffix. Some arabic loanwords fall into this category. Examples include 'heart' ámel | ámelā (Pl. -ā), 'human' at | árē or árī (Pl. -ē or -ī), 'mouth' kul | kulō (Pl. -ō), 'head' ŋor | ŋūrū (Pl. -ū), 'lip' oróyik | oroyikiŋ (Pl. -iŋ).
3. There are some broken plurals, most of which are arabic loanwords. Examples are 'scholar' fik | fókora, 'robber' afrīt | afārit, 'pet' zāmela | zwāmel, or non-arabic 'grandpa' anat | ónut.
4. Lukas lists one example of pluralisation where the vocal length is changed 'cow' tḛ | tệ^[3].
5. A small number of words form the singular from a collective plural. Examples are 'witch' émet | émē (Sg. -t), 'horse' ferda | fērat (Sg. -da, Pl. -at), 'wild cat' lūlut | lǘlu.
6. Some words are irregular in the way that they form a plural. Some examples are 'woman' ī | īrin, 'dog' wī | wḗā, 'blacksmith' mēat | mīnyak.

Pronouns edit

^{1. 3rd person Plural also exists as áiŋko}

^{2. from ésiŋko which corresponds to áiŋko}

Possessive pronouns in Sungor stand in postposition, e.g. 'his brother' bet an. If a possessive follows a plural, it is pluralised by adding -uŋ, e.g. 'our hearts' omulu uŋunuŋ.

Demonstrative edit

Sungor Demonstratives are quite underresearched. Examples are 'this' translating to iŋ, plural iŋkō and 'that translating to ệŋ, plural ệŋgo.

Interrogative edit

Interrogatives lack research as well. 'Who' translates to nấrē, 'which' to nấnē, and 'what' to nímmōrī or nim as an alternative expression.^[3]

Indefinite edit

The word for 'human' at is used to express 'someone'. The plural is árī. To differentiate whether 'someone' refers to a man or woman, the respective terms follow. 'Man' is at ma, 'woman' is at ī. Following this same pattern, 'everyone' translates to at kíro, literally 'every human' with kíro being the term for 'every'. Other indefinite pronouns are 'some' kōra, 'everything' híniŋ, or 'nobody' lō. Plurals can be formed by adding the suffix -guŋ.

Numbers edit

Ordinal Numbers edit

Ordinals are derived from the cardinal numbers by adding suffixes -na or -no.

^{1. "The first" (male) also has the special form kémerik}

To indicate how often something happens/has happened, Sungor uses mar and the corresponding ordinal number, e.g. 'the first time' mar korena.^[3]

Adverbs edit

Sungor has locative adverbs, temporal adverbs, and adverbs of manner. Adverbs in Sungor are not well attested for.^[3] Some examples of locative adverbs are 'here' índi, 'there' ḗŋdē, 'between' rēnik, 'above' óroyē. Temporal adverbs are, for example, 'daily' abad hḯnik, 'today' dấdo, 'always' dīman, 'yesterday' ệrē, 'now' hása, 'tomorrow' súsekē. Examples for adverbs of manner are 'maybe' tấsei, 'impossible' tấsoto. 'Maybe' tấsei might not be an adjective in itself since it can be divided into tấ-sei 'it will be'.^[3]

Adverbial numbers edit

Numbers become adverbial when they follow the arabic loanword mar, e.g. 'once' mar kor.^[3]

Adjectives edit

In Sungor, adjectives follow and agree with the noun, for example 'white clay' ōsu aek and 'red clay' ōsu arak. Adjectives form plurals by adding a suffix, e.g. 'small, young' elit | eliŋa (Sg. -t, Pl. -ŋa), 'ripe, mature' naχed | naχedo (Pl. -o), 'older brother' jō dud | jṓā dútū. ^[3]

Verbs edit

Verbs inflect by addition of affixes to a word root. For example, 'I birth' nḗne has the root ēn. Verb roots are usually monosyllabic or disyllabic. Prefixes mark the person, whereas suffixes mark time and mood.

The verbs can be put into three groups depending on the plural-affix they take. While verbs in Group I & II follow a regular patter, group III consists of irregular affixation.^[3]

Present edit

In the following tables, 'R' marks the verb-root, 'V' signals a vowel, sounds in brackets '()' only sometimes occur, sounds in squared brackets '[]' only rarely occur, and '/' signals different realizations according to the context of an utterance, '-' is used to signal affixes.

^{1. Also occurs as eke/[inye]}

^{2. Nasals are followed by -ge, plosives or /s/ are followed by -eke}

In the present tense, verbs can be further divided up into those that have suffix -i (Group I) or -e (Group II).

Present tense conditionals take one of three suffixes: -(V)ŋne, -kne, or -(V)ne. The plural is formed by adding a conditional suffix to a plural suffix, e.g. 'if I count' noto̯yanē | 'if we count' noto̯nyane (from no·to̯y·ny·ane).^[3]

Negation happens by adding a suffix. A positive form with the suffix -e takes -ato if the verb root contains front vowels (a, e, i) or -oto if the verb root contains back vowels (o, u). If the positive form takes the suffix -i, the negative form takes the suffix -to or -(V)kto (sometimes -kāto) with some exceptions. In the plural form -kto becomes -kāto/-kōto, while -ato/-oto remains the same.^[3]

Past edit

^{1. Also n-(V)RV-aŋa}

Preterite tense suffixes can sometimes be added onto the present tense suffixes -i and -e.

Preterite conditionals are formed by replacing the -ne | -nē. These conditionals have a future meaning, e.g. 'I counted' notộyiŋa (preterite I) and 'if I will count' noto̯yiŋne, 'I requested' nisekḗŋiŋa and 'if I will request' nisekḗŋiŋne.^[3]

Both negatives of preterite I & II are derived from the positive by adding the suffix -to, e.g. 'I played' nagarnáŋa | 'I did not play' nagarnáŋto (preterite I) and nagarnáŋiŋa | nagarnáŋiŋto (preterite II).^[3]

Future edit

^{1. Group II plural marker saie can also be replaced by seke}

Lukas suspects the future marker -sa to be an auxiliary verb in the present tens.^[3]

Future tense conditionals are formed by adding suffix -ŋnē, e.g. 'to know' njel and 'if I will know' ninjilisáiŋnē.^[3]

Imperative edit

Imperatives in Sungor differ based on the present tense verb group a word falls into. The positive singular imperative for verbs that end in -i is the verb root, although there are some exceptions. Verbs that end in -e take suffixes -a, -o, -e, and in some cases -i. For plurals, the prefix k-(V)- and suffixes -a or -o are needed. Negative imperatives are follow the either the schemata VR-aito or VR-ēto.^[3]

Auxiliaries edit

Some auxiliaries exist in Sungor. However, due to a lack in research, auxiliaries are not well documented.^[3]

• Erenga basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database