Modern xiphosurans reach up to 60 cm (24 in) in adult length, but the Paleozoic species were often far smaller, some as small as 1 to 3 cm (0.39 to 1.18 in) long.

Their bodies are divided into an anterior prosoma and a posterior opisthosoma, or abdomen. The upper surface of the prosoma is covered by a semicircular carapace, while the underside bears five pairs of walking legs and a pair of pincer-like chelicerae. The mouth is located on underside of the center of the prosoma, between the bases of the walking legs, and lies behind a lip-like structure called the labrum.^[9][10] The exoskeleton consist of a tough cuticle, but do not contain any crystalline biominerals.^[11] Like scorpions, xiphosurans have an exocuticular layer of hyaline which exhibits UV fluorescence.^[12]

Xiphosurans have up to four eyes, located in the carapace. Two compound eyes are on the side of the prosoma, with one or two median ocelli towards the front. The compound eyes are simpler in structure than those of other arthropods, with the individual ommatidia not being arranged in a compact pattern. They can probably detect movement, but are unlikely to be able to form a true image. In front of the ocelli is an additional organ that probably functions as a chemoreceptor.^[10]

The first four pairs of legs end in pincers, and have a series of spines, called the gnathobase, on the inner surface. The spines are used to masticate the food, tearing it up before passing it to the mouth. The fifth and final pair of legs, however, has no pincers or spines, instead having structures for cleaning the gills and pushing mud out of the way while burrowing. Behind the walking legs is a sixth set of appendages, the chilaria, which are greatly reduced in size and covered in hairs and spines.^[13] These are thought to be vestiges of the limbs of an absorbed first opisthosomal segment.^[10]

The opisthosoma is divided into a forward mesosoma, with flattened appendages, and a metasoma at the rear, which has no appendages. In modern forms, the whole of the opisthosoma is fused into a single unsegmented structure.^[14] The underside of the opisthosoma carries the genital openings and five pairs of flap-like gills.^[10]

The opisthosoma terminates in a long caudal spine, commonly referred to as a telson (though this same term is also used for a different structure in crustaceans). The spine is highly mobile, and is used to push the animal upright if it is accidentally turned over.^[10]

Internal anatomy edit

The mouth opens into a sclerotised oesophagus, which leads to a crop and gizzard. After grinding up its food in the gizzard, the animal regurgitates any inedible portions, and passes the remainder to the true stomach. The stomach secretes digestive enzymes, and is attached to an intestine and two large caeca that extend through much of the body, and absorb the nutrients from the food. The intestine terminates in a sclerotised rectum, which opens just in front of the base of the caudal spine.^[10]

Xiphosurans have well-developed circulatory systems, with numerous arteries that send blood from the long tubular heart to the body tissues, and then to two longitudinal sinuses next to the gills. After being oxygenated, the blood flows into the body cavity, and back to the heart. The blood contains haemocyanin, a blue copper-based pigment performing the same function as haemoglobin in vertebrates, and also has blood cells that aid in clotting.^[10]

The excretory system consists of two pairs of coxal glands connected to a bladder that opens near the base of the last pair of walking legs. The brain is relatively large, and, as in many arthropods, surrounds the oesophagus. In both sexes, the single gonad lies next to the intestine and opens on the underside of the opisthosoma.^[10]

Xiphosurans move to shallow water to mate. The male climbs onto the back of the female, gripping her with his first pair of walking legs. The female digs out a depression in the sand, and lays from 200 to 300 eggs, which the male covers with sperm. The pair then separates, and the female buries the eggs.^[10]

The egg is about 2–3 mm (0.08–0.12 in) across. Inside the egg, the embryo goes through four molts before it hatches into a larva, often called a 'trilobite larva' due to its superficial resemblance to a trilobite. At this stage it has no telson yet, and the larva is lecithotrophic (non-feeding) and planktonic, subsisting on the maternal yolk before settling to the bottom to molt, after which the telson first appears.^[15][16] Through a series of successive moults, the larva develops additional gills, increases the length of its caudal spine, and gradually assumes the adult form. Modern xiphosurans reach sexual maturity after about three years of growth.^[10]

The oldest known stem-Xiphosuran, Lunataspis, is known from the late Ordovician of Canada, around 445 million years ago.^[17] No xiphosurans are known from the following Silurian. Xiphosurida first appears during the late Devonian. A major radiation of freshwater xiphosurids, the Belinuridae is known from the Carboniferous, with the oldest representatives of the modern family Limulidae also possibly appearing during this time, though they only appear in abundance during the Triassic. Another major radiation of freshwater xiphosurans, the Austrolimulidae, is known from the Permian and Triassic.^[18] All extant species are estimated to have diverged from a common ancestor that lived about 135 million years ago in the early Cretaceous.^[19] As a group they have never showed much diversity in regard of species. Less than 50 fossil species are known from the Carboniferous period, when they were at their most diverse.^[20]

Xiphosuran classification as of 2018^[update]:^[21][22]

Order Xiphosura Latreille, 1802

• †Maldybulakia Tesakov & Alekseev, 1998 (Devonian)
• †Willwerathia Størmer, 1969 (Devonian)
• †Kasibelinuridae Pickett, 1993 (Middle Devonian to Late Devonian)
• Suborder Xiphosurida
  • †Infraorder Belinurina
    • †Belinuridae Zittel & Eastman, 1913 (Middle Devonian to Upper Carboniferous)
  • Infraorder Limulina
    • †Bellinuroopsis Chernyshev, 1933 (Carboniferous)
    • †Rolfeiidae Selden & Siveter, 1987 (Early Carboniferous to Early Permian)
    • Superfamily †Paleolimuloidea Anderson & Selden, 1997
      • †Paleolimulidae Raymond, 1944 (Carboniferous to Permian)
    • Superfamily Limuloidea
      • †Valloisella Racheboeuf, 1992 (Carboniferous)
      • †Austrolimulidae Riek, 1955 (Early Permian-Early Jurassic)
      • Limulidae Zittel, 1885 (Carboniferous to recent)
        • Limulinae Zittel, 1885 (Late Jurassic-Present)
        • Tachypleinae Pocock, 1902 (Late Cretaceous-Recent)

Taxa removed from Xiphosura edit

Two groups were originally included in the Xiphosura, but since have been assigned to separate classes:

• Aglaspida Walcott, 1911 (Cambrian to Ordovician)
• Chasmataspidida Caster & Brooks, 1956 (Lower Ordovician)

Cladogram edit

Cladogram after Lasmdell 2020.^[1]

• Synziphosurine
• List of xiphosurans

• Jason A. Dunlop (1997). "Palaeozoic arachnids and their significance for arachnid phylogeny" (PDF). Proceedings of the 16th European Colloquium of Arachnology: 65–82. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-27. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
• J. A. Dunlop and P. A. Selden (1997). "The early history and phylogeny of the chelicerates" (PDF). In R. A. Fortey & R. H. Thomas (ed.). Arthropod Relationships. Systematics Association Special Volume Series 55. Chapman & Hall. pp. 221–235. ISBN 978-0-412-75420-3.^{[permanent dead link]}
• B. B. Rohdendorf (ed.) Fundamentals of Paleontology, vol. 9, Arthropoda-Tracheata and Chelicerata: 894 pp. [1991 English translation of Russian original, Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation].
• R. E. Snodgrass. 1952. A Textbook of Arthropod Anatomy. Hafner Publishing Company, New York.

• Peripatus - an overview of arthropod relationships.
• Paleos - a site with a synoptic account of the Xiphosura, focused on fossils.
• Xiphosura - the article from the UCMP Web Taxa project.
• Xiphosura Educational Worksheet for Kids on EasyScienceforKids.