In the third year of Belshazzar, king of Babylon, Daniel in a vision sees himself in Susa, which is in Elam, in modern-day western Iran. In his vision he sees a ram with two horns, one greater than the other; the ram charges to the west, north and south, and no other beast can stand against it. Daniel then sees a male goat with a single horn come from the west without touching the ground; it strikes the ram and destroys it. At the height of his power the goat's horn is broken and in its place four horns grow.^[4] One of the horns is small but grows great and prospers in everything it does, throwing stars down to the earth, stopping the daily sacrifice, destroying the sanctuary and throwing truth to the ground.^[5] Daniel is told the vision will be fulfilled in 2,300 evenings and mornings, when the sanctuary will be cleansed.^[6] The angel Gabriel appears and tells Daniel that this is a vision about the time of the end.^[7]

The Book of Daniel originated as a collection of folktales among the Jewish community in Babylon and Mesopotamia in the Persian and early Hellenistic periods (5th to 3rd centuries BCE), and was later expanded by the visions of chapters 7–12 in the Maccabean era (mid-2nd century).^[8] Daniel is a legendary figure^[9] and his name was presumably chosen for the hero of the book because of his reputation as a wise seer in Hebrew tradition.^[10] The structure of the chapter can be described as follows:^[11]
I. Introduction: date and place (verses 1–2);
II. Vision report: ram, he-goat, angelic conversation (3–12);
III. Epiphany (appearance) of interpreter: circumstances and desire for interpretation, epiphany (15–17);
IV. Interpretation: circumstances, interpretation of images, concluding statement by the angel (18–26);
V. Concluding statement of visionary's reaction, v.27.

The Book of Daniel is an apocalypse, a literary genre in which a heavenly reality is revealed to a human recipient; such works are characterized by visions, symbolism, an other-worldly mediator, an emphasis on cosmic events, angels and demons, and pseudonymity (false authorship).^[12] Apocalypses were common from 300 BCE to 100 CE, not only among Jews and Christians, but Greeks, Romans, Persians and Egyptians.^[13] Daniel, the book's hero, is a representative apocalyptic seer, the recipient of the divine revelation: has learned the wisdom of the Babylonian magicians and surpassed them, because his God is the true source of knowledge; he is one of the maskil, the wise, whose task is to teach righteousness.^[13] The book is also an eschatology, meaning a divine revelation concerning the end of the present age, a moment in which God will intervene in history to usher in the final kingdom.^[14]

Daniel 8 conforms to the type of the "symbolic dream vision" and the "regnal" or "dynastic" prophecy, analogous to a work called the "Babylonian Dynastic Prophecy"–a more extensive example appears in Daniel 11. For its sources it draws on Daniel 7, which supplies the symbolism of the "little horn" and the "holy ones" (angels), as well as on the Book of Ezekiel, which provides the location by a river and the epiphany of the angel, and on the Book of Habakkuk with its concern with the "end of time." The "little horn" which casts some of the stars to the ground recalls Isaiah 14:12 and Lucifer, which in turn presupposes the Ugaritic (Canaanite) myth of Attar's attempt to take the throne of Baal.^[15]

Chapter 8 is about the actions of the world-powers at the "end-time".^[16] The course of history is pre-determined, and Antiochus is merely playing a role in the unwinding of God's plan.^[17] Daniel 8 is thus a reinterpretation and expansion of Daniel 7:^[18] where chapter 7 spoke only cryptically of the change-over from the Medo-Persian empire to the age of the Greek kings, chapter 8 makes this explicit; by the same token, chapter 8 speaks cryptically of the "little horn," whose story will be taken up in detail in the following chapters.^[16]

Historical background edit

Daniel 8 is an interpretation of the author's own time, 167–164 BCE, with a claim that God will bring to an end the oppression of the Jewish people.^[19] It begins with the Greek conquest of the Persian empire, touches on the rise of the four Greek successor-kingdoms, and then focuses on the career of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who took the throne of Seleucid Syria in 175 BCE.^[20] Antiochus found himself in conflict with the Jews, and while the details are obscure, it appears that there was a revolt in Jerusalem, he sent troops to suppress it, and as a result the daily Jewish sacrifice was stopped and the Temple polluted.^[21] The date for this is usually given as 167 BCE.^[21] The attempt to wipe out traditional religion and culture inevitably provoked a reaction, and the rebel Jews, led by Judas Maccabee and his brothers, won sufficient military victories over the Seleucids to take back and purify the temple three years later.^[21]

The ram, the he-goat, the great horn and the four new horns edit

The symbols of the ram and he-goat, explained in the text of Daniel 8 as representing the kings of Persia and Greece, are apparently drawn from the constellations that preside over Persia and Syria in Hellenistic astrology.^[22] Scholars are agreed that the goat's first horn (the horn which is broken) is Alexander the Great, and the four horns which then arise are the four generals who divided his empire.^[23] The detail that the goat does not touch the ground as he attacks the ram may reflect the speed of Alexander's conquest.^[24]

The "little horn" and his war on God edit

The "little horn" which arises from the four horns is Antiochus Epiphanes.^[22] It "grows in power to the south and to the east and towards the beautiful land", reflecting Antiochus' campaigns in Egypt (169–168 BCE), Persia (166 BCE) and Israel (the "beautiful land").^[25] "Truth was flung to the ground" by the little horn as it tramples the land: this is probably a reference to the Torah, the Law of Moses.^[26]

Daniel 8:13's "holy ones" most likely means angels, rather than saints, as in the King James Version.^[27] Sometimes in the Hebrew Bible it seems to refer to the Israelites.^[28] Stars were commonly identified with angels in ancient Israel, and in 8:10 the reader is told that the little horn "grew great ... and some of the host of the stars it cast down to the ground and trampled upon them", indicating that Antiochus fights against the "heavenly host" of God's angels.^[29] Indeed, he "aspired to be as great as the Prince of the host," God himself.^[25]

Daniel is the only book in the Hebrew Bible which gives names to angels. Gabriel may have received his because he "has the appearance of a man" (Hebrew gaber); he appears here as a messenger and interpreter of God's message, the same role he was later given by the author of Luke's annunciation scene (Luke 1:19,26).^[30] Michael is depicted as Israel's guardian angel and a warrior.^[30] The prominence given these divine beings in Daniel is typical of Hellenistic Jewish literature, but much more restricted than in contemporary works such as First Enoch.^[30]

The 2,300 evenings and mornings edit

In verse 13 Daniel overhears two "holy ones" (angels). One asks" "For how long is this vision concerning the regular burnt offering, the transgression that makes desolate, and the giving over the sanctuary and host to be trampled?" and Daniel is informed that it will be "for 2,300 evenings and mornings," or 1,150 days.^[31] This is contradicted (twice in one sentence) at the end of Daniel 12, which says that "from the time the regular burnt offering is taken away ... there shall be 1,290 days; happy are those that persevere and attain the 1,335 days" (Daniel 12:11–12): the different numbers, first 1,150 days, then 1,290, finally 1,335, are presumably revisions made when the earlier numbers passed without fulfillment.^[32]

The period in question was initially the duration of the desecration of the Temple, but 1,150 days is slightly less than three and a half years, while the desecration lasted only three years.^[31] It seems likely that the focus of the author shifted from the desecration and re-dedication of the Temple to the end of history, which would be marked by the resurrection of the dead: the final number in Daniel 12:12 is followed by the instruction to Daniel to "go your way and rest; you shall rise for your reward at the end of days."^[32]

The interpretation of the 2,300 evenings and mornings as equivalent to half that number of days–1150 days–appears to be the most common, but C. L. Seow, a leading Daniel scholar, takes it to mean 2,300 full days. This would be equivalent to about seven years; assuming that the end-point is the re-dedication of the Temple and restoration of sacrifices in 164 BCE, the starting point would then be the murder of the high priest Onias III in 171, another notable year in the events leading up to the desecration.^[33]

The Book of Daniel, and along with Revelation, formed one of the foundations of Christian eschatology.^{[34][Notes 2]} The authors of the Gospels identified Jesus with Daniel 7's "one like a son of man", and by the 3rd century CE the stone of Daniel 2 and the fourth figure in the furnace in Daniel 3 were interpreted as Christ, the fourth kingdom of Daniel 7 was Rome, and the "little horn" was the Antichrist (his identification as Antiochus was denied by Jerome in a famous exchange with the pagan philosopher Porphyry).^[35] Daniel's timetable was reinterpreted to fit Christian expectations: the prophecy of 70 weeks in Daniel 9:20–27, for example, was commonly held to end either with the life and death of Christ or with the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE.^[36]

In the Middle Ages dissident Catholics, and later Martin Luther, identified the pope as the Antichrist, while the "little horn" included Mohammed, Antiochus, and the papacy, depending on which chapter of Daniel involved.^[36] In the 17th century the English Puritans interpreted their struggle in terms of God's army (themselves) battling the Antichrist (the pope) and his ally (the king), and the Fifth Monarchy Men took their name and ideal of government from Daniel 7.^[37]

• Abomination of desolation
• Day-year principle
• Four kingdoms of Daniel

Citations edit

Bibliography edit

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• Bar, Shaul (2001). A letter that has not been read: dreams in the Hebrew Bible. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press. ISBN 978-0-87820-424-3.
• Boyer, Paul S. (1992). When Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in Modern American Culture. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-95129-8.
• Brettler, Mark Zvi (2005). How To Read the Bible. Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-8276-1001-9.
• Carroll, John T. (2000). "Eschatology". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2.
• Cohn, Shaye J.D. (2006). From the Maccabees to the Mishnah. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22743-2.
• Collins, John J. (1984). Daniel: With an Introduction to Apocalyptic Literature. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-0020-6.
• Collins, John J. (1998). The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature. Eerdmans. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-8028-4371-5. Son of Man: The interpretation and influence of Daniel 7.
• Collins, John J. (2001). Seers, Sibyls, and Sages in Hellenistic-Roman Judaism. BRILL. ISBN 978-0-391-04110-3.
• Collins, John J. (2002). "Current Issues in the Study of Daniel". In Collins, John J.; Flint, Peter W.; VanEpps, Cameron (eds.). The Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-11675-3.
• Collins, John J. (2003). "From Prophecy to Apocalypticism: The Expectation of the End". In McGinn, Bernard; Collins, John J.; Stein, Stephen J. (eds.). The Continuum History of Apocalypticism. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-1520-2.
• Collins, John J. (2013). "Daniel". In Lieb, Michael; Mason, Emma; Roberts, Jonathan (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the Reception History of the Bible. Oxford UNiversity Press. ISBN 978-0-19-164918-9.
• Crawford, Sidnie White (2000). "Apocalyptic". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2.
• Davies, Philip (2006). "Apocalyptic". In Rogerson, J. W.; Lieu, Judith M. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies. Oxford Handbooks Online. ISBN 978-0-19-925425-5.
• DeChant, Dell (2009). "Apocalyptic Communities". In Neusner, Jacob (ed.). World Religions in America: An Introduction. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-1-61164-047-2.
• Doukhan, Jacques (2000). Secrets of Daniel: wisdom and dreams of a Jewish prince in exile. Review and Herald Pub Assoc. ISBN 978-0-8280-1424-3.
• Dunn, James D.G. (2002). "The Danilic Son of Man in the New Testament". In Collins, John J.; Flint, Peter W.; VanEpps, Cameron (eds.). The Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception. BRILL. ISBN 0-391-04128-2.
• Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8.
• Grabbe, Lester L. (2002a). Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period: Belief and Practice from the Exile to Yavneh. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-46101-3.
• Grabbe, Lester L. (2002b). "A Dan(iel) For All Seasons". In Collins, John J.; Flint, Peter W.; VanEpps, Cameron (eds.). The Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-11675-3.
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• Kratz, Reinhard (2001). "The Visions of Daniel". In Collins, John J.; Flint, Peter W.; VanEpps, Cameron (eds.). The Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-11675-3.
• Levine, Amy-Jill (2010). "Daniel". In Coogan, Michael D.; Brettler, Marc Z.; Newsom, Carol A. (eds.). The new Oxford annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical books: New Revised Standard Version. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-937050-4.
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• Matthews, Victor H.; Moyer, James C. (2012). The Old Testament: Text and Context. Baker Books. ISBN 978-0-8010-4835-7.McDonald, Lee Martin (2012). Formation of the Bible: the Story of the Church's Canon. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-59856-838-7. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
• Niskanen, Paul (2004). The Human and the Divine in History: Herodotus and the Book of Daniel. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-567-08213-8.
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• Redditt, Paul L. (2008). Introduction to the Prophets. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-2896-5.
• Reid, Stephen Breck (2000). "Daniel, Book of". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2.
• Rowland, Christopher (2007). "Apocalyptic Literature". In Hass, Andrew; Jasper, David; Jay, Elisabeth (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of English Literature and Theology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927197-9.
• Ryken, Leland; Wilhoit, Jim; Longman, Tremper (1998). Dictionary of Biblical Imagery. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-6733-2.
• Sacchi, Paolo (2004). The History of the Second Temple Period. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-567-04450-1.
• Schwartz, Daniel R. (1992). Studies in the Jewish Background of Christianity. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-145798-2.
• Seow, C.L. (2003). Daniel. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25675-3.
• Schiffman, Lawrence H. (1991). From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism. KTAV Publishing House. ISBN 978-0-88125-372-6.
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• Towner, W. Sibley (1984). Daniel. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-23756-1.
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Further reading edit

• Baldwin, Joyce G. (1981). Donald J. Wiseman (ed.). Daniel: an introduction and commentary. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press. ISBN 978-0-87784-273-6.
• Briant, Pierre (2002) [1996]. From Cyrus to Alexander. Translated by Peter Daniels. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. p. 42. ISBN 1-57506-031-0.
• Brown, Raymond E.; Fitzmyer, Joseph A.; Murphy, Roland E., eds. (1999). The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Prentice Hall. p. 1475. ISBN 0-13-859836-3.
• Carey, Greg (1999). Bloomquist, L. Gregory (ed.). Vision and Persuasion: Rhetorical Dimensions of Apocalyptic Discourse (Google On-line Books). Chalice Press. p. 224. ISBN 0-8272-4005-8. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
• Casey, Maurice (1980). Son of Man: The interpretation and influence of Daniel 7. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 272. ISBN 0-281-03697-7. lists ten commentators of the 'Syrian Tradition' who identify the fourth beast of chapter 7 as Greece, the little horn as Antiochus, and – in the majority of instances – the "saints of the Most High" as Maccabean Jews.
• Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (1996). The Hebrew Bible (Google on-line books). Cassell. p. 257. ISBN 0-304-33703-X. Retrieved 2010-06-24.
• Colless, Brian (1992). "Cyrus the Persian as Darius the Mede in the Book of Daniel" (PDF). Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 56. subscription site: 115. Retrieved 2010-06-12.^{[permanent dead link]}
• Dougherty, Raymond Philip (1929). Nabonidus and Belshazzar: A Study of the Closing Events of the Neo- Babylonian Empire. Yale University Press. p. 216. ASIN B000M9MGX8.
• Eisenman, Robert (1998). James, the brother of Jesus: the key to unlocking the secrets of early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-025773-X.
• Ford, Desmond (1978). Daniel. Southern Publishing Association. p. 309. ISBN 0-8127-0174-7.
• Evans, Craig A.; Flint, Peter W. (1997). Eschatology, messianism, and the Dead Sea scrolls. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-8028-4230-5.
• Goldingay, John (1989). Daniel (Word Biblical Themes) (Rich text format of book). Dallas: Word Publishing Group. p. 132. ISBN 0-8499-0794-2. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
• Grabbe, Lester L. (2008). "Chapter 16: Israel from the Rise of Hellenism to 70 CE". In Rogerson, John William; Lieu, Judith (eds.). The Oxford handbook of biblical studies. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 920. ISBN 978-0-19-923777-7.
• Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie (1987). David R. Fideler (ed.). The Pythagorean sourcebook and library: an anthology of ancient writings which relate to Pythagoras and Pythagorean philosophy. Translated by Guthrie; Thomas Taylor; Arthur Fairbanks Jr. (New ed.). Grand Rapids: Phanes Press. ISBN 978-0-933999-51-0.
• Louis F. Hartman and Alexander A. Di Lella, "Daniel", in Raymond E. Brown et al., ed., The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, 1990, pp. 406–20.
• Hoppe, Leslie J. (1992). "Deuteronomy" (Google On-line Books). In Bergant, Dianne (ed.). The Collegeville Bible commentary: based on the New American Bible: Old Testament. Liturgical Press. p. 464. ISBN 0-8146-2211-9. Retrieved 2010-06-24.
• Keil, C. F.; Delitzsch, Franz (2006) [1955]. Ezekiel and Daniel. Commentary on the Old Testament. Vol. 9. Hendrickson Publishers. ISBN 0-913573-88-4.
• Longman III, Tremper; Dillard, Raymond B. (2006) [1995]. An Introduction to the Old Testament (2nd ed.). Zonderman. p. 528.
• Lucas, Ernest (2002). Daniel. Leicester, England: Apollos. ISBN 0-85111-780-5.
• Millard, Alan R. (April–June 1977). "Daniel 1–6 and History" (PDF). Evangelical Quarterly. 49 (2). Paternoster: 67–73. doi:10.1163/27725472-04902002. S2CID 251878183. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-11-19. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
• Miller, Stephen B. (1994). Daniel. New American Commentary. Vol. 18. Nashville: Broadman and Holman. p. 348. ISBN 0-8054-0118-0.
• Murphy, Frederick James (1998). Fallen is Babylon: the Revelation to John (Google On-line Books). Trinity Press International. p. 472. ISBN 1-56338-152-4. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
• Notes (1992). The New American Bible. Catholic Book Publishing Co. p. 1021. ISBN 978-0-89942-510-8.
• Oppenheim, A. Leo (1966). "Babylonian and Assyrian Historical Texts". In James B. Pritchard (ed.). Ancient Near Eastern Texts (2nd ed.; 3rd print ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 308.
• Rowley, H. H. (1959). Darius the Mede and the Four World Empires in the Book of Daniel: A Historical Study of Contemporary Theories. University of Wales Press. p. 195. ISBN 1-59752-896-X.
• Rowley, Harold Henry (1963). The Growth of the Old Testament. Harper & Row.
• Schwartz, Daniel R. (1992). Studies in the Jewish background of Christianity (Google On-line Books). Mohr Siebeck. p. 304. ISBN 3-16-145798-6. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
• Shea, William H. (1982). "Nabonidus, Belshazzar, and the Book of Daniel: An Update". AUSS Journal Online Archive. 20 (2). Andrews University Seminary: 133–149. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2010-06-19.
• Shea, William H. (1986). "The Prophecy of Daniel 9:24–27". In Holbrook, Frank (ed.). The Seventy Weeks, Leviticus, and the Nature of Prophecy. Daniel and Revelation Committee Series. Vol. 3. Review and Herald Publishing Association.
• Manser, Martin H. (2009). David Barratt; Pieter J. Lalleman; Julius Steinberg (eds.). Critical companion to the Bible: a literary reference. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 978-0-8160-7065-7.
• Stimilli, Davide (2005). The face of immortality: physiognomy and criticism. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6263-8.
• Tyndale; Elwell, Walter A.; Comfort, Philip W. (2001). Tyndale Bible dictionary. Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8423-7089-9.
• Tomasino, Anthony J. (2003). Judaism before Jesus: the ideas and events that shaped the New Testament world. IVP Academic; Print On Demand Edition. p. 345. ISBN 0-8308-2730-7. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
• Wiseman, D. J. (1965). Notes on Some Problems in the Book of Daniel. London: Tyndale Press. p. 80. ISBN 0-85111-038-X.
• Young, Edward J. (2009) [1949]. The Prophecy of Daniel: a Commentary. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 332. ISBN 978-0-8028-6331-7.
• John F. Walvoord, Daniel: The Key to Prophetic Revelation, 1989. ISBN 0-8024-1753-1.
• Ford, Desmond (1978). Daniel. Southern Publishing Association. p. 309. ISBN 0-8127-0174-7.
• Holbrook, Frank B., ed. (1986). Symposium on Daniel. Daniel & Revelation Committee Series. Vol. 2. Biblical Research Institute: Review and Herald Publishing Association. p. 557. ISBN 0-925675-01-6.
• Pfandl, Gerhard (2004). Daniel: The Seer of Babylon. Review and Herald Pub Assoc. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-8280-1829-6.
• Stefanovic, Zdravko (2007). Daniel: Wisdom to the Wise: Commentary on the Book of Daniel. Pacific Press Publishing Association. p. 480. ISBN 978-0-8163-2212-1.^{[permanent dead link]}