Hibakusha (pronounced[çibaꜜkɯ̥ɕa] or [çibakɯ̥ꜜɕa]; Japanese: 被爆者 or 被曝者; lit. "survivor of the bomb" or "person affected by exposure [to radioactivity]") is a word of Japanese origin generally designating the people affected by the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II.
Definitionedit
The word hibakusha is Japanese, originally written in kanji. While the term Hibakusha 被爆者 (hi被 "affected" + baku爆 "bomb" + sha者 "person") has been used before in Japanese to designate any victim of bombs, its worldwide democratization led to a definition concerning the survivors of the atomic bombsdropped in Japan by the United States Army Air Forces on the 6 and 9 August 1945.
Anti-nuclear movements and associations, among others of hibakusha, spread the term to designate any direct victim of nuclear disaster, including the ones of the nuclear plant in Fukushima.[1] They, therefore, prefer the writing 被曝者 (replacing baku爆 "bomb" with the homophonous 曝 "exposure") or "person affected by the exposure", implying "person affected by nuclear exposure".[2] This definition tends to be adopted since 2011.[3]
The juridic status of hibakusha is allocated to certain people, mainly by the Japanese government.
Official recognitionedit
The Atomic Bomb Survivors Relief Law defines hibakusha as people who fall into one or more of the following categories: within a few kilometers of the hypocenters of the bombs; within 2 km of the hypocenters within two weeks of the bombings; exposed to radiation from fallout; or not yet born but carried by pregnant women in any of these categories.[4] The Japanese government has recognized about 650,000 people as hibakusha. As of March 31, 2023[update], 113,649 were still alive, mostly in Japan,[5] and in 2024 are expected to surpass the number of surviving US World War veterans.[6] The government of Japan recognizes about 1% of these as having illnesses caused by radiation.[7]Hibakusha are entitled to government support. They receive a certain amount of allowance per month, and the ones certified as suffering from bomb-related diseases receive a special medical allowance.[8]
The memorials in Hiroshima and Nagasaki contain lists of the names of the hibakusha who are known to have died since the bombings. Updated annually on the anniversaries of the bombings, as of August 2023[update], the memorials record the names of 535,000 hibakusha; 339,227 in Hiroshima[9] and 195,607 in Nagasaki.[10]
Panoramic view of the monument marking the hypocenter, or ground zero, of the atomic bomb explosion over Nagasaki
In 1957, the Japanese Parliament passed a law providing free medical care for hibakusha. During the 1970s, non-Japanese hibakusha who suffered from those atomic attacks began to demand the right to free medical care and the right to stay in Japan for that purpose. In 1978, the Japanese Supreme Court ruled that such persons were entitled to free medical care while staying in Japan.[11][12]
Korean survivorsedit
During the war, Korea had been under Japanese imperial rule, and many Koreans were forced to go to Hiroshima and Nagasaki as a labor force. According to recent estimates, about 20,000 Koreans were killed in Hiroshima and about 2,000 died in Nagasaki. It is estimated that one in seven of the Hiroshima victims was of Korean ancestry.[13] For many years, Koreans had a difficult time fighting for recognition as atomic bomb victims and were denied health benefits. However, most issues have been addressed in recent years through lawsuits.[14]
Japanese-American survivorsedit
It was a common practice before the war for American Issei, or first-generation immigrants, to send their children on extended trips to Japan to study or visit relatives. More Japanese immigrated to the U.S. from Hiroshima than any other prefecture, and Nagasaki also sent many immigrants to Hawai'i and the mainland. There was, therefore, a sizable population of American-born Nisei and Kibei living in their parents' hometowns of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the time of the atomic bombings. The actual number of Japanese Americans affected by the bombings is unknown – although estimates put approximately 11,000 in Hiroshima city alone – but some 3,000 of them are known to have survived and returned to the U.S. after the war.[15]
A second group of hibakusha counted among Japanese American survivors are those who came to the U.S. in a later wave of Japanese immigration during the 1950s and 1960s. Most in this group were born in Japan and migrated to the U.S. in search of educational and work opportunities that were scarce in post-war Japan. Many were "war brides", or Japanese women who had married American men related to the U.S. military's occupation of Japan.[15]
As of 2014, there are about 1,000 recorded Japanese American hibakusha living in the United States. They receive monetary support from the Japanese government and biannual medical checkups with Hiroshima and Nagasaki doctors familiar with the particular concerns of atomic bomb survivors. The U.S. government provides no support to Japanese American hibakusha.[15]
Other foreign survivorsedit
While one British Commonwealth citizen[16][17][18][19][20]
and seven Dutch POWs (two names known)[21] died in the Nagasaki bombing, at least two POWs reportedly died postwar from cancer thought to have been caused by the atomic bomb.[22][23]
One American POW, the Navajo Joe Kieyoomia, was in Nagasaki at the time of the bombing but survived, reportedly having been shielded from the effects of the bomb by the concrete walls of his cell.[24]
Double survivorsedit
People who suffered the effects of both bombings are known as nijū hibakusha in Japan. These people were in Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, and within two days managed to reach Nagasaki.
A documentary called Twice Bombed, Twice Survived: The Doubly Atomic Bombed of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was produced in 2006. The producers found 165 people who were victims of both bombings, and the production was screened at the United Nations.[25]
On March 24, 2009, the Japanese government officially recognized Tsutomu Yamaguchi (1916–2010) as a double hibakusha. Tsutomu Yamaguchi was confirmed to be 3 kilometers from ground zero in Hiroshima on a business trip when the bomb was detonated. He was seriously burnt on his left side and spent the night in Hiroshima. He got back to his home city of Nagasaki on August 8, a day before the bomb in Nagasaki was dropped, and he was exposed to residual radiation while searching for his relatives. He was the first officially recognized survivor of both bombings.[26] Tsutomu Yamaguchi died at the age of 93 on January 4, 2010, of stomach cancer.[27]
Discriminationedit
Hibakusha and their children were (and still are) victims of severe discrimination when it comes to prospects of marriage or work[28] due to public ignorance about the consequences of radiation sickness, with much of the public believing it to be hereditary or even contagious.[29][30] This is despite the fact that no statistically demonstrable increase of birth defects/congenital malformations was found among the later conceived children born to survivors of the nuclear weapons used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, or found in the later conceived children of cancer survivors who had previously received radiotherapy.[31][32][33]
The surviving women of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, who could conceive, and were exposed to substantial amounts of radiation, went on and had children with no higher incidence of abnormalities/birth defects than the rate which is observed in the Japanese average.[34][35]
Studs Terkel's book The Good War includes a conversation with two hibakusha. The postscript observes:
There is considerable discrimination in Japan against the hibakusha. It is frequently extended toward their children as well: socially as well as economically. "Not only hibakusha but their children, are refused employment," says Mr. Kito. "There are many among them who do not want it known that they are hibakusha."
Some estimates are that 140,000 people in Hiroshima (38.9% of the population) and 70,000 people in Nagasaki (28.0% of the population) died in 1945, but how many died immediately as a result of exposure to the blast, heat, or due to radiation, is unknown. One Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) report discusses 6,882 people examined in Hiroshima, and 6,621 people examined in Nagasaki, who were largely within 2000 meters from the hypocenter, who suffered injuries from the blast and heat but died from complications frequently compounded by acute radiation syndrome (ARS), all within about 20–30 days.[38][39]
In the rare cases of survival for individuals who were in utero at the time of the bombing and yet who still were close enough to be exposed to less than or equal to 0.57 Gy, no difference in their cognitive abilities was found, suggesting a threshold dose for pregnancies below which there is no danger. In 50 or so children who survived the gestational process and were exposed to more than this dose, putting them within about 1000 meters from the hypocenter, microcephaly was observed; this is the only elevated birth defect issue observed in the Hibakusha, occurring in approximately 50 in-utero individuals who were situated less than 1000 meters from the bombings.[40][41]
In a manner dependent on their distance from the hypocenter, in the 1987 Life Span Study, conducted by the Radiation Effects Research Foundation, a statistical excess of 507 cancers, of undefined lethality, were observed in 79,972 hibakusha who had still been living between 1958–1987 and who took part in the study.[42]
An epidemiology study by the RERF estimates that from 1950 to 2000, 46% of leukemia deaths and 11% of solid cancers, of unspecified lethality, could be due to radiation from the bombs, with the statistical excess being estimated at 200 leukemia deaths and 1,700 solid cancers of undeclared lethality.[43]
Kiyoshi Tanimoto, hibakusha at 36 years old, Methodist minister, anti-nuclear activist, has helped Hiroshima Maidens and for hibakusha to gain social rights. Peace prize named after him
Koko Kondo – hibakusha of Hiroshima at 1-year-old, notable peace activist and daughter of Reverend Kiyoshi Tanimoto
Michihiko Hachiya – hibakusha of Hiroshima at 42 years old, physician specialized in hibakusha, writer of Hiroshima Diary[44]
Sadako Kurihara – hibakusha of Hiroshima at 32 years old, poet, anti-nuclear activist, founder of Gensuikin Hiroshima Haha no Kai(« Mothers of Hiroshima »)
Sankichi Tōge – hibakusha at 28 years old, poet and militant
Setsuko Thurlow – hibakusha of Hiroshima at 13 years old, anti-nuclear activist, ambassador, and keynote speaker at the reception of the Nobel Peace Prize of ICAN
Shigeaki Mori – a historian of allied prisoners of war
Shinoe Shōda – hibakusha at 34 years old, writer and poet
Shuntaro Hida – hibakusha of Hiroshima at 28 years old, physician specialized in treating hibakusha
Yōsuke Yamahata – military photographer, not a direct victim of the Bomb but has taken pictures of Nagasaki the next day. Died of cancer probably due to radiation. Can be considered as a hibakusha according to the ABCC classification.
Hiroshima and Nagasakiedit
Tsutomu Yamaguchi – the first person officially recognized to have survived both the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombings.
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^Romei, Sayuri (2017-03-11). "6 years after the Fukushima disaster, its victims are still suffering". Revista de Prensa (in European Spanish). Retrieved 2019-01-14.
^"Overseas Atomic Bomb Survivors Support Program". Atomic Bomb Survivors Affairs Division Health And Welfare Department Nagasaki prefectural Government. Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2007-08-25.
^Masheter, Peter (August 6, 2023). "Hiroshima mayor calls nuke deterrence a "folly" at 78th A-bomb anniv". Kyodo News. Retrieved 2023-08-09.
^McEvoy, Olan (June 1, 2023). "Annual projected number of living WWII United States military veterans from 2021 until 2036," Statista, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1333701/us-military-ww2-veterans-living-estimate/
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^My Life: Interview with former Hiroshima Mayor Takashi Hiraoka, Part 10, Chugoku Shimbun
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^Hibakusha: A Korean's fight to end discrimination toward foreign A-bomb victims Archived 2013-02-19 at archive.today, Mainichi Daily News. May 9, 2008.
^ abcWake, Naoko. "Japanese American Hibakusha", Densho Encyclopedia. Retrieved Aug 5, 2014.
^"Nagasaki memorial adds British POW as A-bomb victim". The Japan Times. August 9, 1945. Retrieved Jan 9, 2009.
^"Two Dutch POWs join Nagasaki bomb victim list". The Japan Times. August 9, 1945. Archived from the original on December 20, 2005. Retrieved Jan 9, 2009.
^"Flack Genealogy - Norman Charles Flack". 12 March 2007. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007.
^It Gave Him Life – It Took It, Too Archived 2017-08-16 at the Wayback Machine
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^"Twice Bombed, Twice Survived: Film Explores Untold Stories from Hiroshima & Nagasaki". Columbia University. August 2, 2006. Retrieved 2009-03-31.
^"Man who survived two atom bombs dies". CNN. January 8, 2010. Retrieved 2010-01-08.
^Simons, Lewis M. (June 7, 1984). "Children of Hiroshima, Nagasaki survivors facing prejudice, discrimination in Japan". Ottawa Citizen. Knight-Rider News. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
^"Prejudice haunts atomic bomb survivors". Japan Times. Archived from the original on 2007-08-10. Retrieved 2007-08-25.
^"The survivors of the atomic bomb attacks in Japan". 2 August 1995.
^The Children of Atomic Bomb Survivors: A Genetic Study. 1992. No differences were found (in frequencies of birth defects, stillbirths, etc), thus allaying the immediate public concern that atomic radiation might spawn an epidemic of malformed children.
^World Health Organization report. page 23 & 24 internal]
^Winther, J. F.; Boice, J. D.; Thomsen, B. L.; Schull, W. J.; Stovall, M.; Olsen, J. H. (1 January 2003). "Sex ratio among offspring of childhood cancer survivors treated with radiotherapy". Br J Cancer. 88 (3): 382–387. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6600748. PMC2747537. PMID 12569380.
^http://www.rerf.jp/radefx/genetics_e/birthdef.html (RERF)Radiation Effects Research Foundation. Formerly known as the (ABCC)Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission.
^"NUCLEAR CRISIS: Hiroshima and Nagasaki cast long shadows over radiation science". Archived from the original on 2012-04-05. Retrieved 2013-03-04.
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^Kalter, Harold (28 July 2010). Teratology in the Twentieth Century Plus Ten. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9789048188208 – via Google Books.
^National Research Council (1956). Effect of Exposure to the Atomic Bombs on Pregnancy Termination in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. doi:10.17226/18776. hdl:2027/mdp.39015003401224. ISBN 978-0-309-30440-5 – via www.nap.edu.
^Peterson, Leif E.; Abrahamson, Seymour (6 July 1998). Effects of Ionizing Radiation: Atomic Bomb Survivors and Their Children (1945-1995). Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 9780309556996 – via Google Books.
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^"国内最高齢111歳の男性亡くなる 神石高原町の中村茂さん" [Japan's oldest 111-year-old man passes away: Shigeru Nakamura of Jinseki Kogen Town] (in Japanese). Chugoku Shimbun. 15 November 2022. Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
^"Bloomsbury - Burnt Shadows". Archived from the original on 2012-08-28.
Media related to Casualties of atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at Wikimedia Commons
Nagasaki Archive
White Light/Black Rain official website Archived 2008-06-05 at the Wayback Machine (film)
Voices of the survivors from Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Voice of Hibakusha "Eye-witness accounts of the bombing of Hiroshima"
Hibakusha, fifteen years after the bomb (CBC TV news report)
Virtual Museum "Hibakusha testimonies, coupled with photographs, memoirs and paintings, give a human face to the tragedy of the A-bombing. Starting in 1986, the Hiroshima Peace Culture Foundation initiated a project to record hibakusha giving testimonies on video. In each year since, the testimonies of 50 people have been recorded and edited into 20-minute segments per person"
The Voice of Hibakusha
Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission Archived 2006-10-27 at the Wayback MachineABCC
Radiation Effects Research Foundation website
"Survival in Nagasaki." Archived 2018-12-31 at the Wayback Machine
"Living with a double A-bomb surviving parent." Archived 2015-05-30 at the Wayback Machine
"Fight against the A-bomb." Archived 2016-01-08 at the Wayback Machine
"Contribute actively to peace." Archived 2015-07-02 at the Wayback Machine
Hibakusha Testimonies – Online reprints of published sources including excerpts from the Japan Times.
A-Bomb Survivors: Women Speak Out for Peace – Online DVD Testimonies of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Hibakusha with subtitles in 6 different languages.
Literary Fallout: The legacies of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Three Quarters of A Century After Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Hibakusha – Brave Survivors Working for a Nuclear-Free World - Online exhibit launched in 2023 by the No More Hiroshima & Nagasaki Museum.