List of most massive stars

Summary

This is a list of the most massive stars that have been discovered, in solar mass units (M).

Uncertainties and caveats edit

Most of the masses listed below are contested and, being the subject of current research, remain under review and subject to constant revision of their masses and other characteristics. Indeed, many of the masses listed in the table below are inferred from theory, using difficult measurements of the stars' temperatures and absolute brightnesses. All the masses listed below are uncertain: Both the theory and the measurements are pushing the limits of current knowledge and technology. Both theories and measurements could be incorrect. For example, VV Cephei could be between 25–40 M, or 100 M, depending on which property of the star is examined.

 
Artist's impression of disc of obscuring material around a massive star.

Complications with distance and obscuring clouds edit

Since massive stars are rare, astronomers must look very far from Earth to find them. All the listed stars are many thousands of light years away, which makes measurements difficult. In addition to being far away, many stars of such extreme mass are surrounded by clouds of outflowing gas created by extremely powerful stellar winds; the surrounding gas interferes with the already difficult-to-obtain measurements of stellar temperatures and brightnesses, which greatly complicates the issue of estimating internal chemical compositions and structures.[a] This obstruction leads to difficulties in calculating parameters.

 
Eta Carinae is the bright spot hidden in the double-lobed dust cloud. It is the most massive star that has a Bayer designation. It was only discovered to be (at least) two stars in the past few decades.

Both the obscuring clouds and the great distances make it difficult to judge whether the star is just a single supermassive object or, instead, a multiple star system. A number of the "stars" listed below may actually be two or more companions orbiting too closely to distinguish by our telescopes, each star being massive in itself but not necessarily "supermassive" to either be on this list, or near the top of it. Other combinations are possible – for example a supermassive star with one or more smaller companions or more than one giant star – but without being able to see inside the surrounding cloud, it is difficult to know the truth of the matter.

More globally, statistics on stellar populations seem to indicate that the upper mass limit is in the 100–200 solar mass range,[1] so all mass estimates exceeding this range are suspect.

Rare reliable estimates edit

Eclipsing binary stars are the only stars whose masses are estimated with some confidence. However note that almost all of the masses listed in the table below were inferred by indirect methods; only a few of the masses in the table were determined using eclipsing systems.

Amongst the most reliable listed masses are those for the eclipsing binaries NGC 3603-A1, WR 21a, and WR 20a. Masses for all three were obtained from orbital measurements.[b] This involves measuring their radial velocities and also their light curves. The radial velocities only yield minimum values for the masses, depending on inclination, but light curves of eclipsing binaries provide the missing information: inclination of the orbit to our line of sight.

Relevance of stellar evolution edit

Some stars may once have been more massive than they are today. It is likely that many large stars have suffered significant mass loss (perhaps as much as several tens of solar masses). This mass may have been expelled by superwinds: high velocity winds that are driven by the hot photosphere into interstellar space. The process forms an enlarged extended envelope around the star that interacts with the nearby interstellar medium and infusing the region with elements heavier than hydrogen or helium.[c]

There are also – or rather were – stars that might have appeared on the list but no longer exist as stars, or are supernova impostors; today we see only their debris.[d] The masses of the precursor stars that fueled these destructive events can be estimated from the type of explosion and the energy released, but those masses are not listed here (see § Black holes below).

Mass limits edit

There are two related theoretical limits on how massive a star can possibly be: the accretion limit and the Eddington mass limit. The accretion limit is related to star formation: After about 120 M have accreted in a protostar, the combined mass should have become hot enough for its heat to drive away any further incoming matter. In effect, the protostar reaches a point where it evaporates away material as fast as it collects new material. The Eddington limit is based on light pressure from the core of an already-formed star: As mass increases past ~150 M, the intensity of light radiated from a Population I star's core will become sufficient for the light-pressure pushing outward to exceed the gravitational force pulling inward, and the surface material of the star will be free to float away into space.

Accretion limits edit

Astronomers have long hypothesized that as a protostar grows to a size beyond 120 M, something drastic must happen.[2] Although the limit can be stretched for very early Population III stars, and although the exact value is uncertain, if any stars still exist above 150–200 M they would challenge current theories of stellar evolution.

Studying the Arches Cluster, which is currently the densest known cluster of stars in our galaxy, astronomers have confirmed that no stars in that cluster exceed about 150 M.

 
The R136 cluster is an unusually dense collection of young, hot, blue stars.

Rare ultramassive stars that exceed this limit – for example in the R136 star cluster – might be explained by the following proposal: Some of the pairs of massive stars in close orbit in young, unstable multiple-star systems must occasionally collide and merge, when certain unusual circumstances hold that make a collision possible.[3]

Eddington mass limit edit

Eddington's limit on stellar mass arises because of light-pressure: For a sufficiently massive star the outward pressure of radiant energy generated by nuclear fusion in the star's core exceeds the inward pull of its own gravity. The lowest mass for which this effect is active is the Eddington limit.

Stars of greater mass have a higher rate of core energy generation, and heavier stars luminosities increase far out of proportion to the increase in their masses. The Eddington limit is the point beyond which a star ought to push itself apart, or at least shed enough mass to reduce its internal energy generation to a lower, maintainable rate. The actual limit-point mass depends on how opaque the gas in the star is, and metal-rich Population I stars have lower mass limits than metal-poor Population II stars. Before their demise, the hypothetical metal-free Population III stars would have had the highest allowed mass, somewhere around 300 M.

In theory, a more massive star could not hold itself together because of the mass loss resulting from the outflow of stellar material. In practice the theoretical Eddington Limit must be modified for high luminosity stars and the empirical Humphreys–Davidson limit is used instead.[4]

List of the most massive known stars edit

Legend
Wolf–Rayet star
Luminous blue variable
O-type star
B-type star

The following two lists show a few of the known stars, including the stars in open cluster, OB association and H II region. Despite their high luminosity, many of them are nevertheless too distant to be observed with the naked eye. Stars that are at least sometimes visible to the unaided eye have their apparent magnitude (6.5 or brighter) highlighted in blue.

The first list gives stars that are estimated to be 60 M or larger; the majority of which are shown. The second list includes some notable stars which are below 60 M for the purpose of comparison. The method used to determine each star's mass is included to give an idea of the data's uncertainty; note that the mass of binary stars can be determined far more accurately. The masses listed below are the stars' current (evolved) mass, not their initial (formation) mass.


A few notable large stars with masses less than 60 M are shown in the table below for the purpose of comparison, ending with the Sun, which is very close, but would otherwise be too small to be included in the list. At present, all the listed stars are naked-eye visible and relatively nearby.

Star name Mass
(M, Sun = 1)
Approx. distance
from earth (ly)
Apparent
visible magnitude
Effective
temperature (K)
Estimation
method
Link Reference
ζ Puppis (Naos in Vela R2 of Vela Molecular Ridge) 56.1 1,080 2.25 40,000 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [69][13][u]
λ Cephei (Runaway star from Cepheus OB3) 51.4 3,100 5.05 36,000 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [69][13]
τ Canis Majoris Aa (in NGC 2362) 50 5,120 4.89 32,000 Evolution SIMBAD [78][13]
θ Muscae Ab (in Centaurus OB1) 44 7,400 5.53
(combined)
33,000 Evolution SIMBAD [79][13]
ε Orionis (Alnilam in Orion OB1 of Orion complex) 40 2,000 1.69 27,500 Evolution SIMBAD [80][13]
θ2 Orionis A (in Orion OB1 of Orion complex) 39 1,500 5.02 34,900 Evolution SIMBAD [81][82]
α Camelopardalis (Runaway star from NGC 1502) 37.6 6,000 4.29 29,000 Evolution SIMBAD [83][13]
P Cygni (in IC 4996 of Cygnus OB1) 37 5,100 4.82 18,700 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [84][13][v]
ζ1 Scorpii (in NGC 6231 of Scorpius OB1) 36 8,210 4.705 17,200 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [35][85]
ζ Orionis Aa (Alnitak in Orion OB1 of Orion complex) 33 1,260 2.08 29,500 Evolution SIMBAD [86]
θ1 Orionis C1 (in Trapezium Cluster of Orion complex) 33 1,340 5.13
(combined)
39,000 Evolution SIMBAD [87][13]
κ Cassiopeiae (in Cassiopeia OB14) 33 4,000 4.16 23,500 Evolution SIMBAD [88][13]
μ Normae (in NGC 6169) 33 3,260 4.91 28,000 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [89][13]
η Carinae B (in Trumpler 16 of Carina Nebula) 30 7,500 4.3
(combined)
37,200 Binary SIMBAD [90][43]
γ2 Velorum B (in Vela OB2) 28.5 1,230 1.83
(combined)
35,000 Evolution SIMBAD [91][13]
λ Orionis A (Meissa in Collinder 69 of Orion complex) 27.9 1,100 3.54 37,700 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [89][92]
ξ Persei (Menkib in California Nebula of Perseus OB2) 26.1 1,200 4.04 35,000 Evolution SIMBAD [83][13]
WR 79a (in NGC 6231 of Scorpius OB1) 24.4 5,600 5.77 35,000 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [89][13]
δ Orionis Aa1 (Mintaka in Orion OB1 of Orion complex) 24 1,200 2.5
(combined)
29,500 Evolution SIMBAD [93][94]
ι Orionis Aa1 (Hatysa in NGC 1980 of Orion complex) 23.1 1,340 2.77
(combined)
32,500 Evolution SIMBAD [95][96]
κ Crucis (in Jewel Box Cluster of Centaurus OB1) 23 7,500 5.98 16,300 Evolution SIMBAD [97][64]
WR 78 (in NGC 6231 of Scorpius OB1) 22 4,100 6.48 50,100 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [31][32]
ο2 Canis Majoris (in Collinder 121) 21.4 2,800 3.043 15,500 Evolution SIMBAD [89][13]
β Orionis A (Rigel in Orion OB1 of Orion complex) 21 860 0.13 12,100 Evolution SIMBAD [98][13]
η Canis Majoris (Aludra in Collinder 121) 21 2,000 2.45 15,000 Evolution SIMBAD [88][13]
ζ Ophiuchi (in Upper Scorpius subgroup of Scorpius OB2) 20.2 370 2.569 34,000 Evolution SIMBAD [83][13]
υ Orionis (in Orion OB1 of Orion complex) 20 2,900 4.618 33,400 Evolution SIMBAD [99][100]
σ Orionis Aa (in Orion OB1 of Orion complex) 18 1,260 4.07
(combined)
35,000 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [101][102]
μ Columbae (Runaway star from Trapezium Cluster) 16 1,300 5.18 33,000 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [103][13]
κ Orionis (Saiph in Orion OB1 of Orion complex) 15.5 650 2.09 26,500 Evolution SIMBAD [104][13]
σ Cygni (in Cygnus OB4) 15 3,260 4.233 10,800 Evolution SIMBAD [105][106]
θ Carinae A (in IC 2602 of Scorpius OB2) 14.9 460 2.76
(combined)
31,000 Evolution SIMBAD [89][107]
θ2 Orionis B (in Orion OB1 of Orion complex) 14.8 1,500 6.38 29,300 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [108]
ζ Persei (in Perseus OB2) 14.5 750 2.86 20,800 Evolution SIMBAD [104][13]
σ Orionis B (in Orion OB1 of Orion complex) 14 1,260 4.07
(combined)
31,000 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [101][102]
β Canis Majoris (Mirzam in Local Bubble of Scorpius OB2) 13.5 490 1.985 23,200 Evolution SIMBAD [109][110]
ε Persei A (in α Persei Cluster) 13.5 640 2.88
(combined)
26,500 Evolution SIMBAD [111][112]
ι Orionis Aa2 (in NGC 1980 of Orion complex) 13.1 1,340 2.77
(combined)
27,000 Evolution SIMBAD [95][96]
δ Scorpii A (Dschubba in Upper Scorpius subgroup of Scorpius OB2) 13 440 2.307
(combined)
27,400 Evolution SIMBAD [113][114]
σ Orionis Ab (in Orion OB1 of Orion complex) 13 1,260 4.07
(combined)
29,000 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [101][102]
θ Muscae Aa (WR 48 in Centaurus OB1) 11.5 7,400 5.53
(combined)
83,000 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [115][13]
γ2 Velorum A (WR 11 in Vela OB2) 9 1,230 1.83
(combined)
57,000 Spectroscopy SIMBAD [91][13]
ρ Ophiuchi A (in ρ Ophiuchi cloud complex of Scorpius OB2) 8.7 360 4.63
(combined)
22,000 Evolution SIMBAD [89][13]
γ Orionis (Bellatrix in Bellatrix Cluster of Orion complex) 7.7 250 1.64 21,800 Evolution SIMBAD [116][13]
α Scorpii B (in Loop I Bubble of Scorpius OB2) 7.2 550 5.5 18,500 Evolution SIMBAD [117][92]
λ Tauri A (in Pisces-Eridanus stellar stream) 7.18 480 3.47
(combined)
18,700 Evolution SIMBAD [118][119]
δ Persei (in α Persei Cluster) 7 520 3.01 14,900 Evolution SIMBAD [89][107]
ψ Persei (in α Persei Cluster) 6.2 580 4.31 16,000 Evolution SIMBAD [89][13]
α Pavonis Aa (Peacock in Tucana-Horologium association) 5.91 180 1.94 17,700 Evolution SIMBAD [120][96]
η Tauri A (Alcyone in Pleiades) 5.9 440 2.87
(combined)
12,300 Evolution SIMBAD [121][13]
γ Canis Majoris (Muliphein in Collinder 121) 5.6 440 4.1 13,600 Evolution SIMBAD [89][122]
ο Velorum (in IC 2391 of Scorpius OB2) 5.5 490 3.6 16,200 Evolution SIMBAD [123][107]
ο Aquarii (in Pisces-Eridanus stellar stream) 4.2 440 4.71 13,500 Evolution SIMBAD [124][125]
ν Fornacis (in Pisces-Eridanus stellar stream) 3.65 370 4.69 13,400 Evolution SIMBAD [126][13]
φ Eridani (in Tucana-Horologium association) 3.55 150 3.55 13,700 Evolution SIMBAD [120][127]
η Chamaeleontis (in η Chamaeleontis moving group of Scorpius OB2) 3.2 310 5.453 12,500 Evolution SIMBAD [128][64]
ε Chamaeleontis (in ε Chamaeleontis moving group of Scorpius OB2) 2.87 360 4.91 10,900 Evolution SIMBAD [129][107]
τ1 Aquarii (in Pisces-Eridanus stellar stream) 2.68 320 5.66 10,600 Evolution SIMBAD [130][131]
ε Hydri (in Tucana-Horologium association) 2.64 150 4.12 11,000 Evolution SIMBAD [130][132]
β1 Tucanae (in Tucana-Horologium association) 2.5 140 4.37 10,600 Evolution SIMBAD [89][92]
Sun (in Solar System) 1 0.0000158 −26.744 5,772 Standard IAU [133][134][135]
  1. ^ For some methods, different determinations of chemical composition lead to different estimates of mass.
  2. ^ For a binary star, it is possible to measure the individual masses of the two stars by studying their orbital motions, using Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
  3. ^ The superwinds from massive stars are similar to the superwinds generated by asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars – red giants – that form planetary nebulae. These stars' later remnants become the (technically non-stellar) white dwarf cores of planetary nebulae.
  4. ^ For examples of stellar debris see hypernovae and supernova remnant.
  5. ^ Mass is estimated from hydrogen abundance and luminosity, making it very uncertain.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o This is a binary system but the secondary is much less massive than the primary.
  7. ^ This unusual measurement was made by assuming the star was ejected from a three-body encounter in NGC 3603. This assumption also means that the current star is the result of a merger between two original close binary components. The mass is consistent with evolutionary mass for a star with the observed parameters.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Mercer 30 is an open cluster in Dragonfish Nebula.
  9. ^ N64 is an emission nebula in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  10. ^ BSDL 1830 is a star cluster in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  11. ^ BSDL 2527 is a star cluster in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  12. ^ BSDL 2505 is a star cluster in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  13. ^ DEM S10 is a H II region in Small Magellanic Cloud.
  14. ^ Bochum 10 is an open cluster in Carina Nebula.
  15. ^ N135 is an emission nebula in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  16. ^ N70 is an emission nebula in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  17. ^ DEM L294 is a H II region in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  18. ^ DEM S80 is a H II region in Small Magellanic Cloud.
  19. ^ a b GKK-A144 is a stellar association in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  20. ^ BSDL 2242 is a star cluster in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  21. ^ Vela R2 is a OB association in Vela Molecular Ridge.
  22. ^ IC 4996 is an open cluster in Cygnus OB1.

Black holes edit

Black holes are the end point evolution of massive stars. Technically they are not stars, as they no longer generate heat and light via nuclear fusion in their cores. Some black holes may have cosmological origins, and would then never have been stars. This is thought to be especially likely in the cases of the most massive black holes.

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ van Marle, A.J.; Owocki, S.P.; Shaviv, N.J. (March 2008). Continuum-driven winds from super-Eddington stars: A tale of two limits. First Stars III: First Stars III Conference. AIP Conference Proceedings. AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol. 990. Santa Fe, NM. pp. 250–253. arXiv:0708.4207. Bibcode:2008AIPC..990..250V. doi:10.1063/1.2905555. ISSN 0094-243X. S2CID 118364586.
  2. ^ Maeder, A.; Georgy, C.; Meynet, G.; Ekström, S. (March 2012). "On the Eddington limit and Wolf-Rayet stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 539: A110. arXiv:1201.5013. Bibcode:2012A&A...539A.110M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118328. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 119230088.
  3. ^ Banerjee, Sambaran; Kroupa, Pavel; Oh, Seungkyung (21 October 2012). "The emergence of super-canonical stars in R136-type starburst clusters: Super-canonical stars in R136". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 426 (2): 1416–1426. arXiv:1208.0826. Bibcode:2012MNRAS.426.1416B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21672.x. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 119202197.
  4. ^ Ulmer, Andrew; Fitzpatrick, Edward L. (September 1998). "Revisiting the modified Eddington limit for massive stars". The Astrophysical Journal. 504 (1): 200–206. arXiv:astro-ph/9708264. Bibcode:1998ApJ...504..200U. doi:10.1086/306048. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 14916494.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Hainich, R.; Rühling, U.; Todt, H.; Oskinova, L. M.; Liermann, A.; Gräfener, G.; et al. (May 2014). "The Wolf-Rayet stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud. A comprehensive analysis of the WN class". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 565: A27. arXiv:1401.5474. Bibcode:2014A&A...565A..27H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322696. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 55123954.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az Doran, E.I.; Crowther, P.A.; de Koter, A.; Evans, C.J.; McEvoy, C.; Walborn, N.R.; et al. (October 2013). "The VLT-FLAMES Tarantula Survey: XI. A census of the hot luminous stars and their feedback in 30 Doradus". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 558: A134. arXiv:1308.3412. Bibcode:2013A&A...558A.134D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321824. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 118510909.
  7. ^ a b c Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Crowther, Paul A.; Caballero-Nieves, Saida M.; Schneider, Fabian R. N.; Simón-Díaz, Sergio; Brands, Sarah A.; de Koter, Alex; Gräfener, Götz; Herrero, Artemio; Langer, Norbert; Lennon, Daniel J. (2020-12-01). "The R136 star cluster dissected with Hubble Space Telescope/STIS - II. Physical properties of the most massive stars in R136". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 499 (2): 1918–1936. arXiv:2009.05136. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.499.1918B. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2801. ISSN 0035-8711.
  8. ^ a b c Kalari, Venu M.; Horch, Elliott P.; Salinas, Ricardo; Vink, Jorick S.; Andersen, Morten; Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Rubio, Monica (2022-07-26). "Resolving the Core of R136 in the Optical". The Astrophysical Journal. 935 (2): 162. arXiv:2207.13078. Bibcode:2022ApJ...935..162K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac8424. S2CID 251067072.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af Bestenlehner, J.M.; Gräfener, G.; Vink, J.S.; Najarro, F.; de Koter, A.; Sana, H.; et al. (October 2014). "The VLT-FLAMES Tarantula Survey: XVII. Physical and wind properties of massive stars at the top of the main sequence". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 570: A38. arXiv:1407.1837. Bibcode:2014A&A...570A..38B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423643. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 118606369.
  10. ^ a b c d e Bik, A.; Henning, Th.; Wu, S.-W.; Zhang, M.; Brandner, W.; Pasquali, A.; Stolte, A. (April 2019). "Near-infrared spectroscopy of the massive stellar population of W51: evidence for multi-seeded star formation". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 624: A63. arXiv:1902.05460. Bibcode:2019A&A...624A..63B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935061. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 118711844.
  11. ^ a b Bagnulo, S.; Wade, G.A.; Nazé, Y.; Grunhut, J.H.; Shultz, M.E.; Asher, D.J.; et al. (March 2020). "A search for strong magnetic fields in massive and very massive stars in the Magellanic Clouds". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 635: A163. arXiv:2002.12061. Bibcode:2020A&A...635A.163B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201937098. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 211532767.
  12. ^ a b c De Becker, M.; Rauw, G.; Manfroid, J.; Eenens, P. (September 2006). "Early-type stars in the young open cluster IC 1805: II. The probably single stars HD 15570 and HD 15629, and the massive binary/triple system HD 15558". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 456 (3): 1121–1130. arXiv:astro-ph/0606379. Bibcode:2006A&A...456.1121D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065300. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 16519684.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar Ducati, J.R. (2002). VizieR Online Data Catalog: Catalogue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system (Report). Collection of Electronic Catalogues. Vol. 2237. CDS/ADC. Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D. S2CID 118191108.
  14. ^ a b Tehrani, Katie A.; Crowther, Paul A.; Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Littlefair, Stuart P.; Pollock, A.M.T.; Parker, Richard J.; Schnurr, Olivier (1 April 2019). "Weighing Melnick 34: the most massive binary system known". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 484 (2): 2692–2710. arXiv:1901.04769. Bibcode:2019MNRAS.484.2692T. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz147. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 119069481.
  15. ^ a b c d Schneider, F.R.N.; Sana, H.; Evans, C.J.; Bestenlehner, J.M.; Castro, N.; Fossati, L.; et al. (5 January 2018). "An excess of massive stars in the local 30 Doradus starburst". Science. 359 (6371): 69–71. arXiv:1801.03107. Bibcode:2018Sci...359...69S. doi:10.1126/science.aan0106. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 29302009. S2CID 206658504.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Walborn, Nolan R.; Howarth, Ian D.; Lennon, Daniel J.; Massey, Philip; Oey, M. S.; Moffat, Anthony F. J.; et al. (May 2002). "A New Spectral Classification System for the Earliest O Stars: Definition of Type O2". The Astronomical Journal. 123 (5): 2754–2771. Bibcode:2002AJ....123.2754W. doi:10.1086/339831. ISSN 0004-6256. S2CID 122127697.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap Bonanos, A.Z.; Massa, D.L.; Sewilo, M.; Lennon, D.J.; Panagia, N.; Smith, L.J.; et al. (1 October 2009). "Spitzer SAGE Infrared Photometry of Massive Stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud". The Astronomical Journal. 138 (4): 1003–1021. arXiv:0905.1328. Bibcode:2009AJ....138.1003B. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/138/4/1003. ISSN 0004-6256. S2CID 14056495.
  18. ^ a b c d Crowther, Paul A.; Schnurr, Olivier; Hirschi, Raphael; Yusof, Norhasliza; Parker, Richard J.; Goodwin, Simon P.; Kassim, Hasan Abu (21 October 2010). "The R136 star cluster hosts several stars whose individual masses greatly exceed the accepted 150 M⊙ stellar mass limit". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 408 (2): 731–751. arXiv:1007.3284. Bibcode:2010MNRAS.408..731C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17167.x. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 53001712.
  19. ^ a b c d e f Melena, Nicholas W.; Massey, Philip; Morrell, Nidia I.; Zangari, Amanda M. (1 March 2008). "The massive star content of NGC 3603". The Astronomical Journal. 135 (3): 878–891. arXiv:0712.2621. Bibcode:2008AJ....135..878M. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/3/878. ISSN 0004-6256. S2CID 16765414.
  20. ^ Evans, C.J.; Walborn, N.R.; Crowther, P.A.; Hénault-Brunet, V.; Massa, D.; Taylor, W.D.; et al. (1 June 2010). "A massive runaway star from 30 Doradus". The Astrophysical Journal. 715 (2): L74–L79. arXiv:1004.5402. Bibcode:2010ApJ...715L..74E. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/715/2/L74. ISSN 2041-8205. S2CID 118498849.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Zacharias, N.; Finch, C.T.; Girard, T.M.; Henden, A.; Bartlett, J.L.; Monet, D.G.; Zacharias, M.I. (July 2012). "VizieR On-Line Data Catalog: UCAC4 Catalogue". VizieR On-Line Data Catalog: I/322A. Originally Published in: 2012yCat.1322....0Z; 2013AJ....145...44Z. 1322. Bibcode:2012yCat.1322....0Z. S2CID 211646126.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Brands, S.; de Koter, A.; Bestenlehner, J.; Crowther, P.; Sundqvist, J.; Puls, J.; et al. (7 April 2022). "The R136 star cluster dissected with Hubble Space Telescope/STIS. III. The most massive stars and their clumped winds". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 663: A36. arXiv:2202.11080. Bibcode:2022A&A...663A..36B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142742. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 247025548.
  23. ^ Roman-Lopes, A.; Franco, G.A.P.; Sanmartim, D. (26 May 2016). "SOAR Optical and Near-infrared Spectroscopic Survey of Newly Discovered Massive Stars in the Periphery of Galactic Massive Star Clusters I-NGC 3603". The Astrophysical Journal. 823 (2): 96. arXiv:1604.01096. Bibcode:2016ApJ...823...96R. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/823/2/96. ISSN 1538-4357. S2CID 119204619.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Massey, Philip; DeGioia-Eastwood, Kathleen; Waterhouse, Elizabeth (February 2001). "The progenitor masses of Wolf-Rayet stars and luminous blue variables determined from cluster turnoffs. II. Results from 12 galactic clusters and OB associations". The Astronomical Journal. 121 (2): 1050–1070. arXiv:astro-ph/0010654. Bibcode:2001AJ....121.1050M. doi:10.1086/318769. ISSN 0004-6256. S2CID 53345173.
  25. ^ Vázquez, R.A.; Baume, G. (June 2001). "The open cluster Havlen-Moffat no. 1 revisited". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 371 (3): 908–920. Bibcode:2001A&A...371..908V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20010410. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 121918776.
  26. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae Massey, Philip; Waterhouse, Elizabeth; DeGioia-Eastwood, Kathleen (May 2000). "The progenitor masses of Wolf-Rayet stars and luminous blue variables determined from cluster turnoffs. I. Results from 19 OB associations in the Magellanic Clouds". The Astronomical Journal. 119 (5): 2214–2241. arXiv:astro-ph/0002233. Bibcode:2000AJ....119.2214M. doi:10.1086/301345. ISSN 0004-6256. S2CID 16891188.
  27. ^ Fabricius, C.; Høg, E.; Makarov, V.V.; Mason, B.D.; Wycoff, G.L.; Urban, S.E. (March 2002). "The Tycho double star catalogue". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 384 (1): 180–189. Bibcode:2002A&A...384..180F. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011822. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 56060737.
  28. ^ a b c d Zaritsky, Dennis; Harris, Jason; Thompson, Ian B.; Grebel, Eva K. (October 2004). "The Magellanic Clouds Photometric Survey: The Large Magellanic Cloud Stellar Catalog and Extinction Map". The Astronomical Journal. 128 (4): 1606–1614. arXiv:astro-ph/0407006. Bibcode:2004AJ....128.1606Z. doi:10.1086/423910. ISSN 0004-6256. S2CID 119532934.
  29. ^ Drew, J.E.; Herrero, A.; Mohr-Smith, M.; Monguió, M.; Wright, N.J.; Kupfer, T.; Napiwotzki, R. (21 October 2018). "Massive stars in the hinterland of the young cluster, Westerlund 2". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 480 (2): 2109–2124. arXiv:1807.06486. Bibcode:2018MNRAS.480.2109D. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1905. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 53126230.
  30. ^ Vargas Álvarez, Carlos A.; Kobulnicky, Henry A.; Bradley, David R.; Kannappan, Sheila J.; Norris, Mark A.; Cool, Richard J.; Miller, Brendan P. (25 March 2013). "The distance to the massive galactic cluster Westerlund 2 from a spectroscopic and HST photometric study". The Astronomical Journal. 145 (5): 125. arXiv:1302.0863. Bibcode:2013AJ....145..125V. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/145/5/125. ISSN 0004-6256. S2CID 67769122.
  31. ^ a b c d e Hamann, W.-R.; Gräfener, G.; Liermann, A.; Hainich, R.; Sander, A.a.C.; Shenar, T.; et al. (1 May 2019). "The galactic WN stars revisited - impact of Gaia distances on fundamental stellar parameters". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 625: A57. arXiv:1904.04687. Bibcode:2019A&A...625A..57H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834850. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 104292503.
  32. ^ a b Samus, N.N.; Kazarovets, E.V.; Durlevich, O.V.; Kireeva, N.N.; Pastukhova, E.N. (January 2009). "VizieR Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars (Samus+ 2007-2013)". VizieR On-Line Data Catalog: B/GCVS. Originally Published in: 2017ARep...61...80S; 2017AZh....94...87S. 1. Bibcode:2009yCat....102025S. S2CID 208116145.
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h Gräfener, G.; Vink, J.S.; de Koter, A.; Langer, N. (November 2011). "The Eddington factor as the key to understand the winds of the most massive stars: Evidence for a Γ-dependence of Wolf-Rayet type mass loss". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 535: A56. arXiv:1106.5361. Bibcode:2011A&A...535A..56G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201116701. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 59396651.
  34. ^ a b c d e f g h Figer, Donald F.; Najarro, Francisco; Gilmore, Diane; Morris, Mark; Kim, Sungsoo S.; Serabyn, Eugene; et al. (10 December 2002). "Massive Stars in the Arches Cluster". The Astrophysical Journal. 581 (1): 258–275. arXiv:astro-ph/0208145. Bibcode:2002ApJ...581..258F. doi:10.1086/344154. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 119002004.
  35. ^ a b Clark, J. S.; Najarro, F.; Negueruela, I.; Ritchie, B. W.; Urbaneja, M. A.; Howarth, I. D. (May 2012). "On the nature of the galactic early-B hypergiants". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 541: A145. arXiv:1202.3991. Bibcode:2012A&A...541A.145C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117472. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 11978733.
  36. ^ Laur, Jaan; Kolka, Indrek; Eenmäe, Tõnis; Tuvikene, Taavi; Leedjärv, Laurits (February 2017). "Variability survey of brightest stars in selected OB associations". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 598: A108. arXiv:1611.02452. Bibcode:2017A&A...598A.108L. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629395. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 119076598.
  37. ^ a b Nelan, Edmund P.; Walborn, Nolan R.; Wallace, Debra J.; Moffat, Anthony F.J.; Makidon, Russell B.; Gies, Douglas R.; Panagia, Nino (July 2004). "Resolving OB systems in the Carina nebula with the Hubble Space Telescope Fine Guidance Sensor". The Astronomical Journal. 128 (1): 323–329. Bibcode:2004AJ....128..323N. doi:10.1086/420716. ISSN 0004-6256. S2CID 121115585.
  38. ^ a b c d Wu, Shi-Wei; Bik, Arjan; Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Henning, Thomas; Pasquali, Anna; Brandner, Wolfgang; Stolte, Andrea (May 2016). "The massive stellar population of W49: A spectroscopic survey". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 589: A16. arXiv:1602.05190. Bibcode:2016A&A...589A..16W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527823. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 59425112.
  39. ^ a b c d e f Cutri, Roc M.; Skrutskie, Michael F.; van Dyk, Schuyler D.; Beichman, Charles A.; Carpenter, John M.; Chester, Thomas; et al. (2003). VizieR Online Data Catalog: 2MASS All-Sky Catalog of Point Sources (Cutri+ 2003) (Report). Collection of Electronic Catalogues. Vol. 2246. CDS/ADC. p. II/246. Bibcode:2003yCat.2246....0C. S2CID 115529446.
  40. ^ Tramper, F.; Sana, H.; Fitzsimons, N.E.; de Koter, A.; Kaper, L.; Mahy, L.; Moffat, A. (11 January 2016). "The mass of the very massive binary WR21a". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 455 (2): 1275–1281. arXiv:1510.03609. Bibcode:2016MNRAS.455.1275T. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2373. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 44364798.
  41. ^ Oskinova, L. M.; Steinke, M.; Hamann, W.-R.; Sander, A.; Todt, H.; Liermann, A. (21 December 2013). "One of the most massive stars in the Galaxy may have formed in isolation". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 436 (4): 3357–3365. arXiv:1309.7651. Bibcode:2013MNRAS.436.3357O. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1817. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 118513968.
  42. ^ Clementel, N.; Madura, T.I.; Kruip, C.J.H.; Paardekooper, J.-P.; Gull, T.R. (1 March 2015). "3D radiative transfer simulations of Eta Carinae's inner colliding winds - I. Ionization structure of helium at apastron". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 447 (3): 2445–2458. arXiv:1412.7569. Bibcode:2015MNRAS.447.2445C. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2614. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 118405692.
  43. ^ a b Hamaguchi, Kenji; Corcoran, Michael F.; Pittard, Julian M.; Sharma, Neetika; Takahashi, Hiromitsu; Russell, Christopher M.P.; et al. (September 2018). "Non-thermal X-rays from colliding wind shock acceleration in the massive binary Eta Carinae". Nature Astronomy. 2 (9): 731–736. arXiv:1904.09219. Bibcode:2018NatAs...2..731H. doi:10.1038/s41550-018-0505-1. ISSN 2397-3366. S2CID 126188024.
  44. ^ a b c d e f de la Fuente, D.; Najarro, F.; Borissova, J.; Ramírez Alegría, S.; Hanson, M.M.; Trombley, C.; et al. (May 2016). "Probing the Dragonfish star-forming complex: The ionizing population of the young massive cluster Mercer 30". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 589: A69. arXiv:1602.02503. Bibcode:2016A&A...589A..69D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201528004. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 119096455.
  45. ^ Rivero González, J.G.; Puls, J.; Najarro, F.; Brott, I. (January 2012). "Nitrogen line spectroscopy of O-stars: II. Surface nitrogen abundances for O-stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 537: A79. arXiv:1110.5148. Bibcode:2012A&A...537A..79R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117790. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 119110554.
  46. ^ a b c Crowther, Paul A.; Caballero-Nieves, S.M.; Bostroem, K.A.; Apellániz, J. Maíz; Schneider, F.R.N.; Walborn, N.R.; et al. (1 May 2016). "The R136 star cluster dissected with Hubble Space Telescope / STIS. I. Far-ultraviolet spectroscopic census and the origin of He{{supII}} λ1640 in young star clusters". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 458 (1): 624–659. arXiv:1603.04994. Bibcode:2016MNRAS.458..624C. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw273. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 119131482.
  47. ^ a b Sana, H.; van Boeckel, T.; Tramper, F.; Ellerbroek, L. E.; de Koter, A.; Kaper, L.; et al. (15 March 2013). "R144 revealed as a double-lined spectroscopic binary". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 432 (1): L26–L30. arXiv:1304.4591. Bibcode:2013MNRAS.432L..26S. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slt029. ISSN 1745-3933. S2CID 119238483.
  48. ^ a b c d Reed, B. Cameron (May 2003). "Catalog of Galactic OB Stars". The Astronomical Journal. 125 (5): 2531–2533. Bibcode:2003AJ....125.2531R. doi:10.1086/374771. ISSN 0004-6256. S2CID 121285799.
  49. ^ a b c d e Schild, H.; Testor, G. (March 1992). "Spectral types and UBV magnitudes of stars in the 30 Doradus complex". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 92: 729–748. Bibcode:1992A&AS...92..729S. ISSN 0365-0138. S2CID 115371295.
  50. ^ a b c d Bonanos, A.Z.; Lennon, D.J.; Köhlinger, F.; van Loon, J.Th.; Massa, D. L.; Sewilo, M.; et al. (1 August 2010). "Spitzer SAGE-SMC infrared photometry of massive stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud". The Astronomical Journal. 140 (2): 416–429. arXiv:1004.0949. Bibcode:2010AJ....140..416B. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/140/2/416. hdl:1887/61635. ISSN 0004-6256. S2CID 119290443.
  51. ^ a b c Smith, Nathan; Tombleson, Ryan (11 February 2015). "Luminous blue variables are antisocial: their isolation implies that they are kicked mass gainers in binary evolution". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 447 (1): 598–617. arXiv:1406.7431. Bibcode:2015MNRAS.447..598S. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2430. ISSN 1365-2966. S2CID 119284620.
  52. ^ Evans, C.J.; Lennon, D.J.; Smartt, S. J.; Trundle, C. (September 2006). "The VLT-FLAMES survey of massive stars: observations centered on the Magellanic Cloud clusters NGC 330, NGC 346, NGC 2004, and the N11 region". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 456 (2): 623–638. arXiv:astro-ph/0606405. Bibcode:2006A&A...456..623E. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20064988. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 13160849.
  53. ^ a b c d e Massa, D.; Fullerton, A. W.; Prinja, R. K. (September 2017). "Mass-loss rates from mid-infrared excesses in LMC and SMC O stars". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 470 (3): 3765–3774. arXiv:1706.02627. Bibcode:2017MNRAS.470.3765M. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1443. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 119475951.
  54. ^ a b c Ulaczyk, K.; Szymański, M.K.; Udalski, A.; Kubiak, M.; Pietrzyński, G.; Soszyński, I.; et al. (1 June 2013). "Variable Stars from the OGLE-III Shallow Survey in the Large Magellanic Cloud". Acta Astronomica. 63 (2): 159–179. arXiv:1306.4802. Bibcode:2013AcA....63..159U. ISSN 0001-5237. S2CID 119228254.
  55. ^ Weidner, C.; Vink, J.S. (December 2010). "The masses, and the mass discrepancy of O-type stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 524: A98. arXiv:1010.2204. Bibcode:2010A&A...524A..98W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014491. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 118836634.
  56. ^ Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Crowther, Paul A.; Broos, Patrick S.; Pollock, Andrew M T.; Townsley, Leisa K. (2022). "Melnick 33Na: A very massive colliding-wind binary system in 30 Doradus". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 510 (4): 6133–6149. arXiv:2112.00022. Bibcode:2022MNRAS.510.6133B. doi:10.1093/mnras/stab3521.
  57. ^ Castro, N.; Crowther, P. A.; Evans, C.J.; Mackey, J.; Castro-Rodriguez, N.; Vink, J.S.; et al. (2018). "Mapping the core of the Tarantula Nebula with VLT-MUSE. I. Spectral and nebular content around R136". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 614: 12. arXiv:1802.01597. Bibcode:2018A&A...614A.147C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732084. S2CID 119341920. A147.
  58. ^ a b Rauw, G.; Crowther, P.A.; de Becker, M.; Gosset, E.; Nazé, Y.; Sana, H.; et al. (March 2005). "The spectrum of the very massive binary system WR 20a (WN6ha + WN6ha): Fundamental parameters and wind interactions". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 432 (3): 985–998. Bibcode:2005A&A...432..985R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042136. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 53372849.
  59. ^ a b c Fang, M.; van Boekel, R.; King, R. R.; Henning, Th.; Bouwman, J.; Doi, Y.; et al. (March 2012). "Star formation and disk properties in Pismis 24". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 539: A119. arXiv:1201.0833. Bibcode:2012A&A...539A.119F. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201015914. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 73612793.
  60. ^ a b Hainich, R.; Pasemann, D.; Todt, H.; Shenar, T.; Sander, A.; Hamann, W. -R (2015). "Wolf-Rayet stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud. I. Analysis of the single WN stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 581 (21): 30. arXiv:1507.04000. Bibcode:2015A&A...581A..21H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201526241. S2CID 56230998.
  61. ^ a b Skiff, B. A. (October 2014). "VizieR Online Data Catalog: Catalogue of Stellar Spectral Classifications (Skiff, 2009- )". VizieR On-Line Data Catalog: B/Mk. Originally Published in: Lowell Observatory (October 2014). 1. Bibcode:2014yCat....1.2023S. S2CID 215961366.
  62. ^ a b c McEvoy, C.M.; Dufton, P.L.; Evans, C.J.; Kalari, V.M.; Markova, N.; Simón-Díaz, S.; et al. (March 2015). "The VLT-FLAMES Tarantula Survey: XIX. B-type supergiants: Atmospheric parameters and nitrogen abundances to investigate the role of binarity and the width of the main sequence⋆". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 575: A70. arXiv:1412.2705. Bibcode:2015A&A...575A..70M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425202. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 39125418.
  63. ^ Kastner, Joel H.; Buchanan, Catherine L.; Sargent, B.; Forrest, W. J. (10 February 2006). "Spitzer Spectroscopy of Dusty Disks around B[e] Hypergiants in the Large Magellanic Cloud". The Astrophysical Journal. 638 (1): L29–L32. Bibcode:2006ApJ...638L..29K. doi:10.1086/500804. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 121769413.
  64. ^ a b c d e f Høg, E.; Fabricius, C.; Makarov, V.V.; Urban, S.; Corbin, T.; Wycoff, G.; et al. (March 2000). "The Tycho-2 catalogue of the 2.5 million brightest stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 355: L27–L30. Bibcode:2000A&A...355L..27H. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 17128864.
  65. ^ Orosz, Jerome A.; McClintock, Jeffrey E.; Narayan, Ramesh; Bailyn, Charles D.; Hartman, Joel D.; Macri, Lucas; et al. (October 2007). "A 15.65-solar-mass black hole in an eclipsing binary in the nearby spiral galaxy M 33". Nature. 449 (7164): 872–875. arXiv:0710.3165. Bibcode:2007Natur.449..872O. doi:10.1038/nature06218. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 17943124. S2CID 4311574.
  66. ^ Grimm, H.-J.; McDowell, J.; Zezas, A.; Kim, D.-W.; Fabbiano, G. (December 2005). "The X-Ray Binary Population in M33. I. Source List and Luminosity Function". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 161 (2): 271–303. arXiv:astro-ph/0506353. Bibcode:2005ApJS..161..271G. doi:10.1086/468185. ISSN 0067-0049. S2CID 119381693.
  67. ^ Rauw, G.; Sana, H.; Gosset, E.; Vreux, J.-M.; Jehin, E.; Parmentier, G. (August 2000). "A new orbital solution for the massive binary system HD 93403". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 360: 1003–1010. Bibcode:2000A&A...360.1003R. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 13886945.
  68. ^ a b c Shenar, T.; Hainich, R.; Todt, H.; Sander, A.; Hamann, W.-R.; Moffat, A.F.J.; et al. (July 2016). "Wolf-Rayet stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud: II. Analysis of the binaries". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 591: A22. arXiv:1604.01022. Bibcode:2016A&A...591A..22S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527916. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 119255408.
  69. ^ a b c Bouret, J.-C.; Hillier, D.J.; Lanz, T.; Fullerton, A.W. (2012). "Properties of galactic early-type O-supergiants: A combined FUV-UV and optical analysis". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 544: A67. arXiv:1205.3075. Bibcode:2012A&A...544A..67B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118594. S2CID 119280104.
  70. ^ a b Comerón, F.; Pasquali, A. (July 2012). "New members of the massive stellar population in Cygnus". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 543: A101. Bibcode:2012A&A...543A.101C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219022. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 73520813.
  71. ^ Krtička, J.; Kubát, J.; Krtičková, I. (July 2015). "X-ray irradiation of the winds in binaries with massive components". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 579: A111. arXiv:1505.03411. Bibcode:2015A&A...579A.111K. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201525637. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 119120927.
  72. ^ Massey, Philip (July 2002). "A UBVR CCD Survey of the Magellanic Clouds". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 141 (1): 81–122. arXiv:astro-ph/0110531. Bibcode:2002ApJS..141...81M. doi:10.1086/338286. ISSN 0067-0049. S2CID 119447348.
  73. ^ Liermann, Adriane; Hamann, Wolf-Rainer; Oskinova, Lidia M.; Todt, Helge (January 2011). "High-mass stars in the Galactic center Quintuplet cluster". Société Royale des Sciences de Liège, Bulletin. 80: 160–164. Bibcode:2011BSRSL..80..160L. ISSN 0037-9565. S2CID 116895316.
  74. ^ Clark, J.S.; Lohr, M.E.; Patrick, L.R.; Najarro, F.; Dong, H.; Figer, D.F. (October 2018). "An updated stellar census of the Quintuplet cluster". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 618: A2. arXiv:1805.10139. Bibcode:2018A&A...618A...2C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833041. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 53501337.
  75. ^ Testor, G.; Niemela, V. (June 1998). "The OB associations LH 101 and LH 104 in the HII region N158 of the LMC". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 130 (3): 527–538. Bibcode:1998A&AS..130..527T. doi:10.1051/aas:1998241. ISSN 0365-0138. S2CID 55801387.
  76. ^ Burggraf, B.; Weis, K.; Bomans, D.J. (December 2006). "LBVs in M33: Their environments and ages". Stellar Evolution at Low Metallicity: Mass loss, explosions, cosmology. ASP Conference Series. Vol. 353. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. p. 245. Bibcode:2006ASPC..353..245B. ISSN 1050-3390. S2CID 230292777.
  77. ^ Massey, Philip; Neugent, Kathryn F.; Smart, Brianna M. (19 August 2016). "A spectroscopic survey of massive stars in M31 and M33". The Astronomical Journal. 152 (3): 62. arXiv:1604.00112. Bibcode:2016AJ....152...62M. doi:10.3847/0004-6256/152/3/62. ISSN 1538-3881. S2CID 35672588.
  78. ^ de Vries, N.; Portegies Zwart, S.; Figueira, J. (2014). "The evolution of triples with a Roche lobe filling outer star". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 438 (3): 1909. arXiv:1309.1475. Bibcode:2014MNRAS.438.1909D. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1688.
  79. ^ Hill, G. M.; Moffat, A. F. J.; St-Louis, N. (1 October 2002). "Modelling the colliding-winds spectra of the 19-d WR + OB binary in the massive triple system θ Muscae". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 335 (4): 1069–1078. Bibcode:2002MNRAS.335.1069H. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05694.x. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 121923927.
  80. ^ Zsargó, J.; Fierro-Santillán, C.R.; Klapp, J.; Arrieta, A.; Arias, L.; Valencia, J.M.; et al. (November 2020). "Creating and using large grids of precalculated model atmospheres for a rapid analysis of stellar spectra". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 643: A88. arXiv:2009.10879. Bibcode:2020A&A...643A..88Z. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038066. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 225194447.
  81. ^ Mitschang, Arik W.; Schulz, Norbert S.; Huenemoerder, David P.; Nichols, Joy S.; Testa, Paola (2011). "Detailed X-ray line properties of θ2 Ori A in quiescence". The Astrophysical Journal. 734 (1): 14. arXiv:1009.1896. Bibcode:2011ApJ...734...14M. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/734/1/14. S2CID 15568141.
  82. ^ Aldoretta, E.J.; Caballero-Nieves, S.M.; Gies, D.R.; Nelan, E.P.; Wallace, D.J.; Hartkopf, W.I.; et al. (2015). "The multiplicity of massive stars: A high angular-resolution survey with the guidance sensor". The Astronomical Journal. 149 (1): 26. arXiv:1410.0021. Bibcode:2015AJ....149...26A. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/149/1/26. S2CID 58911264.
  83. ^ a b c Repolust, T.; Puls, J.; Herrero, A. (February 2004). "Stellar and wind parameters of Galactic O-stars: The influence of line-blocking/blanketing". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 415 (1): 349–376. Bibcode:2004A&A...415..349R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20034594. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 56418916.
  84. ^ Rivet, J-P; Siciak, A.; de Almeida, E.S.G.; Vakili, F.; Domiciano de Souza, A.; Fouché, M.; et al. (2020). "Intensity interferometry of P Cygni in the H α emission line: Towards distance calibration of LBV supergiant stars". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 494 (1): 218–227. arXiv:1910.08366. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.494..218R. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa588. S2CID 204788654.
  85. ^ Kozok, J. R. (September 1985). "Photometric observations of emission B-stars in the southern Milky Way". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 61: 387–405. Bibcode:1985A&AS...61..387K.
  86. ^ Hummel, C. A.; Rivinius, Th.; Nieva, M.-F.; Stahl, O.; van Belle, G.; Zavala, R. T. (2013). "Dynamical mass of the O-type supergiant in ζ Orionis A". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 554: A52. arXiv:1306.0330. Bibcode:2013A&A...554A..52H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321434. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 53645495.
  87. ^ Balega, Yu. Yu.; Chentsov, E.L.; Leushin, V.V.; Rzaev, A.Kh.; Weigelt, G. (2014). "Young massive binary θ1 Ori C: Radial velocities of components". Astrophysical Bulletin. 69 (1): 46–57. Bibcode:2014AstBu..69...46B. doi:10.1134/S1990341314010052. ISSN 1990-3413. S2CID 120838635.
  88. ^ a b Searle, S. C.; Prinja, R. K.; Massa, D.; Ryans, R. (2008). "Quantitative studies of the optical and UV spectra of Galactic early B supergiants. I. Fundamental parameters". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 481 (3): 777–797. arXiv:0801.4289. Bibcode:2008A&A...481..777S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077125. S2CID 1552752.
  89. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Tetzlaff, N.; Neuhäuser, R.; Hohle, M. M. (2011). "A catalogue of young runaway Hipparcos stars within 3 kpc from the Sun". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 410 (1): 190–200. arXiv:1007.4883. Bibcode:2011MNRAS.410..190T. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17434.x. S2CID 118629873.
  90. ^ Kashi, Amit; Soker, Noam (1 November 2010). "Periastron Passage Triggering of the 19th Century Eruptions of Eta Carinae". The Astrophysical Journal. 723 (1): 602–611. arXiv:0912.1439. Bibcode:2010ApJ...723..602K. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/723/1/602. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 118399302.
  91. ^ a b North, J.R.; Tuthill, P.G.; Tango, W.J.; Davis, J. (2007-05-01). "γ2 Velorum: Orbital solution and fundamental parameter determination with SUSI". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 377 (1): 415–424. arXiv:astro-ph/0702375. Bibcode:2007MNRAS.377..415N. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11608.x. ISSN 0035-8711. S2CID 16425744.
  92. ^ a b c Hoffleit, Dorrit; Jaschek, Carlos (1991). The Bright star catalogue (5th Revised ed.). New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Observatory. Bibcode:1991bsc..book.....H.
  93. ^ Shenar, T.; Oskinova, L.; Hamann, W.-R.; Corcoran, M.F.; Moffat, A.F.J.; Pablo, H.; et al. (2015). "A Coordinated X-Ray and Optical Campaign of the Nearest Massive Eclipsing Binary, δ Orionis Aa. IV. A Multiwavelength, Non-LTE Spectroscopic Analysis". Astrophysical Journal. 809 (2): 135. arXiv:1503.03476. Bibcode:2015ApJ...809..135S. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/809/2/135. hdl:10045/59172. S2CID 14909574.
  94. ^ Tokovinin, A A. (1997). "MSC - a catalogue of physical multiple stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 124: 75–84. Bibcode:1997A&AS..124...75T. doi:10.1051/aas:1997181.
  95. ^ a b Marchenko, Sergey V.; Rauw, Gregor; Antokhina, Eleonora A.; Antokhin, Igor I.; Ballereau, Dominique; Chauville, Jacques; et al. (2000). "Coordinated monitoring of the eccentric O-star binary Iota Orionis: Optical spectroscopy and photometry". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 317 (2): 333. Bibcode:2000MNRAS.317..333M. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03542.x.
  96. ^ a b c Nicolet, B. (1978). "Photoelectric photometric Catalogue of homogeneous measurements in the UBV System". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 34: 1–49. Bibcode:1978A&AS...34....1N.
  97. ^ Dufton, P.L.; Smartt, S.J.; Lee, J.K.; Ryans, R.S.I.; Hunter, I.; Evans, C.J.; et al. (2006). "The VLT-FLAMES survey of massive stars: stellar parameters and rotational velocities in NGC 3293, NGC 4755 and NGC 6611". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 457 (1): 265–280. arXiv:astro-ph/0606409. Bibcode:2006A&A...457..265D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065392. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 15874925.
  98. ^ Shultz, M.; Wade, G.A.; Petit, V.; Grunhut, J.; Neiner, C.; Hanes, D.; et al. (MiMeS Collaboration) (2014). "An observational evaluation of magnetic confinement in the winds of BA supergiants". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 438 (2): 1114. arXiv:1311.5116. Bibcode:2014MNRAS.438.1114S. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt2260. S2CID 118557626.
  99. ^ Smith, M.A. (August 1981). "Nonradial pulsations in the zero-age main-sequence star upsilon Orionis /09.5 V/". The Astrophysical Journal. 248: 214–221. Bibcode:1981ApJ...248..214S. doi:10.1086/159145. ISSN 0004-637X.
  100. ^ Nieva, M.-F. (2013). "Temperature, gravity, and bolometric correction scales for non-supergiant OB stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 550: A26. arXiv:1212.0928. Bibcode:2013A&A...550A..26N. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219677. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 119275940.
  101. ^ a b c Simón-Díaz, S.; Caballero, J.A.; Lorenzo, J.; Maíz Apellániz, J.; Schneider, F.R.N.; Negueruela, I.; et al. (2015). "Orbital and Physical Properties of the σ Ori Aa, Ab, B Triple System". The Astrophysical Journal. 799 (2): 169. arXiv:1412.3469. Bibcode:2015ApJ...799..169S. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/799/2/169. S2CID 118500350.
  102. ^ a b c Mason, Brian D.; Wycoff, Gary L.; Hartkopf, William I.; Douglass, Geoffrey G.; Worley, Charles E. (2001). "The 2001 US Naval Observatory Double Star CD-ROM. I. The Washington Double Star Catalog". The Astronomical Journal. 122 (6): 3466. Bibcode:2001AJ....122.3466M. doi:10.1086/323920.
  103. ^ Martins, F.; Schaerer, D.; Hillier, D. J.; Meynadier, F.; Heydari-Malayeri, M.; Walborn, N. R. (2005). "O stars with weak winds: the Galactic case". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 441 (2): 735–762. arXiv:astro-ph/0507278. Bibcode:2005A&A...441..735M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20052927. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 11547293.
  104. ^ a b Hohle, M.M.; Neuhäuser, R.; Schutz, B.F. (April 2010). "Masses and luminosities of O- and B-type stars and red supergiants". Astronomische Nachrichten. 331 (4): 349. arXiv:1003.2335. Bibcode:2010AN....331..349H. doi:10.1002/asna.200911355. S2CID 111387483.
  105. ^ Przybilla, N.; Firnstein, M.; Nieva, M.F.; Meynet, G.; Maeder, A. (2010). "Mixing of CNO-cycled matter in massive stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 517: A38. arXiv:1005.2278. Bibcode:2010A&A...517A..38P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014164. S2CID 55532189.
  106. ^ Firnstein, M.; Przybilla, N. (2012). "Quantitative spectroscopy of Galactic BA-type supergiants. I. Atmospheric parameters". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 543: A80. arXiv:1207.0308. Bibcode:2012A&A...543A..80F. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219034. S2CID 54725386.
  107. ^ a b c d Johnson, H.L.; Iriarte, B.; Mitchell, R.I.; Wisniewskj, W.Z. (1966). "UBVRIJKL photometry of the bright stars". Communications of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. 4 (99): 99. Bibcode:1966CoLPL...4...99J.
  108. ^ Nieva, María-Fernanda; Przybilla, Norbert (2014). "Fundamental properties of nearby single early B-type stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 566: A7. arXiv:1412.1418. Bibcode:2014A&A...566A...7N. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423373. S2CID 119227033.
  109. ^ Mazumdar, A.; Briquet, M.; Desmet, M.; Aerts, C. (November 2006). "An asteroseismic study of the β Cephei star β Canis Majoris". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 459 (2): 589–596. arXiv:astro-ph/0607261. Bibcode:2006A&A...459..589M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20064980. S2CID 11807580.
  110. ^ Cousins, A.W.J. (1972). "UBV Photometry of Some Very Bright Stars". Monthly Notes of the Astronomical Society of Southern Africa. 31: 69. Bibcode:1972MNSSA..31...69C.
  111. ^ Libich, J.; Harmanec, P.; Vondrák, J.; Yang, S.; Hadrava, P.; Aerts, C.; et al. (February 2006). "The new orbital elements and properties of ɛ Persei". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 446 (2): 583–589. Bibcode:2006A&A...446..583L. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053032. hdl:2066/35168.
  112. ^ Lutz, T.E.; Lutz, J.H. (June 1977). "Spectral classification and UBV photometry of bright visual double stars". Astronomical Journal. 82: 431–434. Bibcode:1977AJ.....82..431L. doi:10.1086/112066.
  113. ^ Miroshnichenko, A.S.; Pasechnik, A.V.; Manset, N.; Carciofi, A.C.; Rivinius, Th.; Štefl, S.; et al. (2013). "The 2011 periastron passage of the Be binary δ Scorpii". The Astrophysical Journal. 766 (2): 119. arXiv:1302.4021. Bibcode:2013ApJ...766..119M. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/766/2/119. S2CID 38692193.
  114. ^ Gutierrez-Moreno, Adelina; Moreno, Hugo (1968-06-01). "A Photometric Investigation of the SCORPlO-CENTAURUS Association". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 15: 459. Bibcode:1968ApJS...15..459G. doi:10.1086/190168. ISSN 0067-0049.
  115. ^ Nugis, T.; Lamers, H.J.G.L.M. (2000). "Mass-loss rates of Wolf-Rayet stars as a function of stellar parameters". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 360: 227. Bibcode:2000A&A...360..227N.
  116. ^ Challouf, M.; Nardetto, N.; Mourard, D.; Graczyk, D.; Aroui, H.; Chesneau, O.; et al. (2014). "Improving the surface brightness-color relation for early-type stars using optical interferometry". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 570: A104. arXiv:1409.1351. Bibcode:2014A&A...570A.104C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423772. S2CID 14624307.
  117. ^ Kudritzki, R.P.; Reimers, D. (1978). "On the absolute scale of mass-loss in red giants. II. Circumstellar absorption lines in the spectrum of α Sco B and mass-loss of α Sco A". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 70: 227. Bibcode:1978A&A....70..227K.
  118. ^ Dervişoğlu, A.; Tout, Christopher A.; Ibanoğlu, C. (August 2010). "Spin angular momentum evolution of the long-period Algols". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 406 (2): 1071–1083. arXiv:1003.4392. Bibcode:2010MNRAS.406.1071D. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16732.x. S2CID 119198387.
  119. ^ Nicolet, B. (October 1978). "Catalogue of homogeneous data in the UBV photoelectric photometric system". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 34: 1–49. Bibcode:1978A&AS...34....1N.
  120. ^ a b David, Trevor J.; Hillenbrand, Lynne A. (2015). "The ages of early-type stars: Strömgren photometric methods calibrated, validated, tested, and applied to hosts and prospective hosts of directly imaged exoplanets". The Astrophysical Journal. 804 (2): 146. arXiv:1501.03154. Bibcode:2015ApJ...804..146D. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/804/2/146. S2CID 33401607.
  121. ^ Zorec, J.; Frémat, Y.; Cidale, L. (2005). "On the evolutionary status of Be stars. I. Field Be stars near the Sun". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 441 (1): 235–248. arXiv:astro-ph/0509119. Bibcode:2005A&A...441..235Z. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053051. S2CID 17592657.
  122. ^ Fernie, J.D. (May 1983). "New UBVRI photometry for 900 supergiants". Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 52: 7–22. Bibcode:1983ApJS...52....7F. doi:10.1086/190856.
  123. ^ Hubrig, S.; Briquet, M.; de Cat, P.; Schöller, M.; Morel, T.; Ilyin, I. (2009). "New magnetic field measurements of β Cephei stars and slowly pulsating B stars". Astronomische Nachrichten. 330 (4): 317–329. arXiv:0902.1314. Bibcode:2009AN....330..317H. doi:10.1002/asna.200811187. S2CID 17497112.
  124. ^ de Almeida, E.S.G.; Meilland, A.; Domiciano de Souza, A.; Stee, P.; Mourard, D.; Nardetto, N.; et al. (April 2020). "Visible and near-infrared spectro-interferometric analysis of the edge-on Be star o Aquarii". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 636: 23. arXiv:2002.09552. Bibcode:2020A&A...636A.110D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936039. S2CID 211258993. A110.
  125. ^ Feinstein, A.; Marraco, H.G. (November 1979). "The photometric behavior of Be Stars". Astronomical Journal. 84: 1713–1725. Bibcode:1979AJ.....84.1713F. doi:10.1086/112600.
  126. ^ North, P. (1998). "Do SI stars undergo any rotational braking?". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 334: 181–187. arXiv:astro-ph/9802286. Bibcode:1998A&A...334..181N.
  127. ^ Mermilliod, J.-C. (1986). Compilation of Eggen's UBV data, transformed to UBV (unpublished). Catalogue of Eggen's UBV Data (Report). SIMBAD. Bibcode:1986EgUBV........0M.
  128. ^ Mamajek, Eric E.; Lawson, Warrick A.; Feigelson, Eric D. (1999). "The η Chamaeleontis cluster: A remarkable new nearby young open cluster". The Astrophysical Journal. 516 (2): L77–L80. Bibcode:1999ApJ...516L..77M. doi:10.1086/312005.
  129. ^ Fang, M.; van Boekel, R.; Bouwman, J.; Henning, Th.; Lawson, W.A.; Sicilia-Aguilar, A. (January 2013). "Young stars in ϵ Chamaleontis and their disks: Disk evolution in sparse associations". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 549: A15. arXiv:1209.5832. Bibcode:2013A&A...549A..15F. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118528. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 118332644.
  130. ^ a b Zorec, J.; Royer, F. (2012). "Rotational velocities of A-type stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 537: A120. arXiv:1201.2052. Bibcode:2012A&A...537A.120Z. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117691. S2CID 55586789.
  131. ^ Corben, P.M.; Stoy, R.H. (1968). "Photoelectric Magnitudes and Colours for Bright Southern Stars". Monthly Notes of the Astronomical Society of Southern Africa. 27: 11. Bibcode:1968MNSSA..27...11C.
  132. ^ Anderson, E.; Francis, Ch. (2012). "XHIP: An extended hipparcos compilation". Astronomy Letters. 38 (5): 331. arXiv:1108.4971. Bibcode:2012AstL...38..331A. doi:10.1134/S1063773712050015. S2CID 119257644.
  133. ^ Luzum, Brian; Capitaine, Nicole; Fienga, Agnès; Folkner, William; Fukushima, Toshio; Hilton, James; et al. (August 2011). "The IAU 2009 system of astronomical constants: the report of the IAU working group on numerical standards for Fundamental Astronomy". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 110 (4): 293–304. Bibcode:2011CeMDA.110..293L. doi:10.1007/s10569-011-9352-4. ISSN 0923-2958. S2CID 122755461.
  134. ^ Bessell, M.S.; Castelli, F.; Plez, B. (May 1998). "Model atmospheres broad-band colors, bolometric corrections and temperature calibrations for O–M stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 333: 231–250. Bibcode:1998A&A...333..231B. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 10513623.
  135. ^ Mamajek, E.E.; Prsa, A.; Torres, G.; Harmanec, P.; Asplund, M.; Bennett, P.D.; et al. (October 2015). "IAU 2015 Resolution B3 on Recommended Nominal Conversion Constants for Selected Solar and Planetary Properties". arXiv:1510.07674 [astro-ph.SR].

External links edit

  • "Statistics in Arches cluster". HubbleSite. May 2005.
  • "Most Massive Star Discovered". Space.com. 7 June 2007.
  • "Arches cluster". ScienceDaily. March 2005.
  • "How heavy can a star get?". 3towers. Archived from the original on 2007-10-28.
  • "Hubble Unveils Monster Stars". NASA. March 2016.