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June 1993 attack on Pakistani military in Somalia

Summary

The June 5th 1993 attack on the Pakistani military was a major confrontation that occurred concurrently in different parts of the Somali capital of Mogadishu, between Somali citizens & militias against the Pakistani peacekeeping contingent of UNOSOM II.

June 1993 attack on Pakistanis
Part of UNOSOM II
Date5 June 1993
Location
Mogadishu, Somalia
Belligerents
UNOSOM II
 Somalia Somali National Alliance
Casualties and losses
Pakistan 25 killed, 59 wounded
United States 3 wounded
Italy 2 wounded		 Somalia 16 - 35 killed, 350 injured (Per. SNA)

The incident was sparked by an inspection or shut-down attempt of the Somali National Alliance (SNA) controlled Radio Mogadishu by UNOSOM troops.[1] The SNA, under the leadership of General Mohammed Farah Aidid, denied initiating the attack and demanded an unbiased commission to ascertain the culprits.[2] A UN inquiry the following year concluded that, although the attack was probably not premeditated, the SNA was most likely responsible.[1]

The event marked a seminal moment for the United Nations operation in Somalia. It was the deadliest loss of UN peacekeepers since the Congo in 1961 and would lead to UNOSOM II being primarily characterized by the hunt for General Aidid. Following the passing of UNSCR 837 on 6 June 1993, UNOSOM II and the SNA would engage in a devastating four month long conflict until the cessation of hostilities following the Battle of Mogadishu.

Background edit

Rising tensions between UNOSOM II and SNA edit

Major disagreements between the UN and the Somali National Alliance began soon after the establishment of UNOSOM II, centering on the perceived true nature of the operations political mandate. By May 1993, relations between the SNA and UNOSOM were rapidly deteriorating.[3]

In early May 1993, Gen. Aidid and Col. Abdullahi Yusuf of the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) agreed to convene a peace conference for central Somalia. In light of recent conflict between the two, the initiative was seen a major step towards halting the Somali Civil War.[4] Gen. Aidid, having initiated the talks with Col. Yusuf, considered himself the conference chair, setting the agenda.[5] Beginning 9 May, elder delegations from their respective clans, Habr Gidr and Majerteen, met.[6] While Aidid and Yusuf aimed for a central Somalia-focused conference, they clashed with UNOSOM, which aimed to include other regions and replace Aidid's chairmanship with ex-President Abdullah Osman, a staunch critic of Aidid.[5] As the conference began, Aidid sought assistance from UNOSOM ambassador Lansana Kouyate, who proposed air transport for delegates and a 14-day accommodation. However, he was called back to New York and replaced by April Glaspie, following which UNOSOM retracted its offer. Aidid resorted to private aircraft to transport delegates. Following the aircraft incident, Aidid would publicly rebuke the United Nations on Radio Mogadishu for interference in Somali internal affairs.[6]

Aidid invited Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Somalia, Adm. Johnathan Howe to open the conference, which was refused.[5] The differences between Aidid and the UN proved to be too great, and the conference proceeded without the United Nations participation.[5] On the 2 June 1993 the conference between Gen. Aidid and Col. Abdullahi Yusuf successfully concluded. Admiral Howe would be invited to witness the peace agreement, but again declined.[7] The Galkacyo peace accord successfully ended large scale conflict in the Galgadud and Mudug regions of Somalia.[8] The contention between the Somali National Alliance and UNOSOM from this point forward would begin to manifest in anti-UNOSOM propaganda broadcast from SNA controlled Radio Mogadishu.[9]

Radio Mogadishu edit

Radio Mogadishu was a popular broadcasting station controlled by the SNA.[10] It had in recent weeks begun airing anti American and anti-UNOSOM propaganda condemning interference in Somali politics after UN envoy Admiral Johnathan Howe had rejected the May peace conference Aidid had set up.[10] On the airwaves Aidid would publicly accuse UNOSOM II of engaging in colonialism and "imperialist designs".[11] These broadcasts greatly incensed UNOSOM officials and consequently a significant debate occurred over how best to deal with the station. According to then UNOSOM advisor John Drysdale, the UN's 'obsession' with the station was largely driven by US diplomat April Galspie. She held the view that the station should be destroyed or transferred to UNOSOM control, and felt so passionately about the issue that she had threatened to resign if the station was not dealt with. While certain UN officials felt that Radio Mogadishu broadcasts had become a threat to UNOSOM's image, other officials and advisors noted that the broadcasts rhetoric were relatively mild and well within the bounds of reasonable speech. Drysdale argues that, "There was virtually nothing in these broadcasts during May to which UNOSOM could have taken exception to. The language was moderate; there was no incitement, no subversion."[12]

From 1 May to 3 June 1993, Aidid spoke on the station publicly eight times. Four of the broadcasts were critical of UNOSOM, and focused on the UN's handling of the May peace conference. There were also three uncritical statements of UNOSOM, during which he thanked officials publicly for aiding Somalia's rehabilitation. The most serious public criticism was on 3 June 1993, when Aidid accused the UN of interference in the creation of a judiciary.[12]

On May 31, 1993, Aidids political rivals met with Johnathan Howe and attempted to convince him to take over Radio Mogadishu, a meeting Aidid was made well aware of. Rumor quickly began spreading across the city that the UNOSOM had actually resolved to shut down Radio Mogadishu entirely, which further angered Aidid, rumors which corroborated after the fact by the US special envoy to Somalia, Robert B. Oakley.[10][13] The belief that UNOSOM was planning to seize station was reportedly widespread among Mogadishu residents.[14] Mohammed Sahnoun, the representative of the UN Secretary-General in Somalia during UNOSOM I, reported that rumours of an attempted UN shut down of the station had reached him days before the incident.[15] According to ambassador Oakley, Aidid saw the targeting of his SNA controlled station as specifically unfair on account of his main political rival Ali Mahdi also having a radio station that UNOSOM was not threatening, due to Mahdi's claim that it was private.[10]

AWSS inspections edit

An agreement had been previously signed between the warring Somali factions and UNOSOM to store heavy weaponry in Authorized Weapons Storage Sites (AWSS), which would be subject to UN inspections.[16] The Radio Mogadishu compound coincidentally happened to be the site of AWSS 5.[10] June 5th, 1993, would be the first inspection of the AWSS.[11]

On the afternoon of Friday June 4th, the day before the battle, UNOSOM notified General Aidid's headquarters that they were planning to inspect six of his arms storage sites.[17] Notably only Aidid's faction, the Somali National Alliance (SNA) was to be inspected.[16] The warning of the coming inspection was received by Aidid's lieutenant Abdi "Qeybdiib" Hassan Awale, as Aidid himself was not present to receive the warning with Friday being the Muslim day of Sabbath, and consequently he was off work.[16][13] Awale would protest that he was not authorized to accept such a notification, a claim which UNOSOM representatives rejected, and informed him that he was a recognized high official of the SNA.[13] The visit was now considered as an official notification.[16] Abdi Qeybdiib would reportedly warn the UNOSOM envoys, "This is unacceptable, this means war."[11][16] This perceived slight greatly played into Aidid's growing fear that UNOSOM was attempting marginalize his authority in their effort to recreate the Somali state.[10][16] A 1994 UN Commission of Inquiry would conclude that the conflict had been set in motion by the decision to give Aidid the "ultimatum like" search notice.[18]

The Pakistani commander cautioned American General Thomas Montgomery that the inspections would be highly politically sensitive and dangerous.[11] Montgomery did not tell the Pakistanis about Abdi Qeybdiibs warning and the Pakistanis' claim if they had known about the objection they would have arrived better equipped.[11]

According to the 1994 United Nations Inquiry into the events leading up to the Battle of Mogadishu:

Opinions differ, even among UNOSOM officials, on whether the weapons inspections of 5 June 1993 was genuine or was merely a cover-up for reconnaissance and subsequent seizure of Radio Mogadishu[18]

Inspection and clashes edit

The particulars of what occurred, and who exactly initiated the clash is contested by UNOSOM and Somali accounts.[10]

On the morning of Saturday June 5th 1993 an element of the Pakistani force in Somalia had been tasked with the inspection of site AWSS 5, which happened to be located at Aidid controlled Radio Mogadishu. The station was popular across the city, even among those who did not like Aidid or the Habr Gidr clan and concern that UNOSOM was coming to shut it down infuriated many citizens of Mogadishu.[16] Two American special forces technicians, in plain clothes, had also been sent along with the Pakistani contingent in order to best determine how to best disable the station.[11][19] Maj Tariq Mahmood, a soldier who was part of the operation noted that, "Entry into the area was smooth but soon thereafter a crowd began gathering outside the building. There was visible agitation against the Americans, accompanying B Company."[19]

According to Pakistani accounts, the Somali guards at the station told the inspectors that there were no weapons present. The Americans special forces insisted and broke several locks with hammers, finding no weapons inside.[19] According to Somali accounts, the UNOSOM troops also began damaging the FM Radio and removing the stations staff from the compound.[20] The forced entry and alleged destruction of station infrastructure was broadcast to the city. News of the incident rapidly spread across Mogadishu and a crowd gathered outside.[19]

Radio Mogadishu Clash edit

As the Pakistanis entered the station a crowd of Somalis had already been gathered in protest; throwing stones while yelling, "Go home UNOSOM! Go home!" and in response Pakistani peacekeepers opened fire into the air to ward off the growing angry mob.[16] Following the broadcast of the news on UNOSOM's entry into the station the crowd rapidly grew in size.[19]

At 10 am when the inspections almost completed fighting broke out in five different locations in the surrounding area.[17] It is generally agreed that the fighting had begun after the killing of a Somali protester, though accounts dispute how they were killed.[19][16] According to Pakistani accounts a Somali man had attempted to snatch a rifle from a soldier and was killed by the troops in the ensuing melee.[19]

Soon after the killing, fighting began rapidly spreading. At Radio Mogadishu, the Pakistanis quickly ran out of ammo and had to fend off grenade attacks using wooden planks as bats.[11] The largest fight of the battle occurred about a mile from the stadium where the roughly 4,000 Pakistani troops in Mogadishu were stationed. Approximately 100 of them were driving back from the weapons inspections when they stopped to remove a roadblock and were ambushed by Somali militia. According to General Ikram that attackers were on both sides of the road, battling for two and a half hours with the Pakistanis, using heavy machine guns, rocket-propelled grenades and rocket launchers.[17]

Italian forces were called for help, but the dispatched attack helicopters would accidentally kill three of the Pakistanis, resulting in their prompt withdrawal from the battle.[19] Armour support would take hours to arrive.[11][13][19]

UNOSOM account edit

At Radio Mogadishu, UN officials claimed that certain individuals had begun to incite the crowd and snipers opened fire. They further claim that two of the initial incidents of shooting were just a diversionary tactic to draw out peacekeeping troops.[17] UNOSOM would deny the Somali charge that they were attempting to seize Radio Mogadishu.[21] UN accounts claim that militia mixed into the crowd had opened fire on the peacekeepers and initiated the battle at Radio Mogadishu.[11]

Somali Accounts edit

Somali accounts claim that the Pakistanis at Radio Mogadishu had opened fire on the crowd first, leading to a response that initiated the battle.[16][11]

"Then the soldiers lowered the muzzles of their guns and shot straight at people. I saw a young child of four and a girl about fifteen and a boy had been killed. I had not used my gun since the night at Villa Somalia (the night Somali dictator Siad Barre was driven from Mogadishu in 1991). I did not fight in the civil war, but now I ran to dig it up from where it was hidden." Account of the incident at Radio Mogadishu according to a young Somali named Abdiwele Ali in an interview with Mark Maren [16]

According to Somali journalist Abdishakur Aadam, Islamist factions in Mogadishu were involved in the clash. He believed that religious groups outside of Aidid's Somali National Alliance played a significant role in the incident.[22] Many Somalis viewed the inspection as a covert effort to shut down the station. This perspective was reinforced by Resolution 837, passed the next day, which called on UN forces to "neutralize radio broadcasting systems that contribute to the violence and attacks directed against UNOSOM II"[21]

A UN inquiry would conclude the next year that: "Without investigation, blame for the attacks of 5 June was laid on the USC/SNA."[11]

Casualties edit

The fighting resulted in the death of 25 Pakistani soldiers and 16 to 35 Somalis according to hospital figures.[17][11] 59 Pakistanis and 3 Americans were wounded.[17] Aidid disputed the hospital figures, claiming 70 Somalis had been killed, many of whom were civilian.[19][17] The severity of the Pakistani death toll is attributed to the lack of armored cars, as many of those killed were shot as they tried to leave their cars to take cover in nearby houses and behind walls.[17]

Reactions edit

Somali reaction edit

At 7 pm on the same day of the clash, Aidid would take to the airwaves and call on residents of Mogadishu to be calm and not shoot at UNOSOM forces unless they fired upon them first. He would directly accuse UNOSOM of attempting to take over the station and sabotaging grassroots Somali peace initiatives:

"Today we pray to Allah for those who died today, may Allah have mercy on them and to those who were wounded may they have a speedy recovery...they (UNOSOM leadership) are directly responsible for the events that happened today. God is my witness...I ask the Somali people to observe order."[23]

The Somali National Alliance denied involvement in the attack that sparked the battle. Aidid asserted that the United Nations had a conflict of interest when judging an assault on its own forces and, therefore, demanded an unbiased commission to ascertain responsibility for the incident.[2][16]

Pakistani reaction edit

In Pakistan, Qazi Hussain Ahmed, head of the party Jamiat Islami would call for the total withdrawal of Pakistani troops following the attack, saying they were "only serving the interests of US imperialism in Somalia and its neighboring Muslim country, Sudan".[24]

June 1993 killings of Somali protestors edit

On Sunday, 13 June 1993, an element of the Pakistani contingent of UNOSOM II opened fire with a machine gun onto a crowd of Somali protestors in Mogadishu for at least one full minute, killing at least 14 Somalis, including women and children, and wounding more than 50 others.[25][26][27][28][29][30] On the following day 14 June, Doctors Without Borders responded to the killings with press release denouncing the excessive use of force by UNOSOM II troops.[31] A few days after the shooting, US President Bill Clinton held a news conference in which he heavily criticized Aidid for his killing of UNOSOM soldiers, but made no condemnation of the killings of Somali civilians at the hands of U.N. forces.[17]

UNSCR 837 and start UNOSOM II - SNA conflict edit

Resolution 837 edit

The following day on 6 June 1993, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 837, calling for the arrest and prosecution of the persons responsible for the death and wounding of the peacekeepers. The Pakistanis, who had proposed the resolution, originally directly named Aidid in it, but was removed by the Americans and others who cited inadequate evidence.[10][32] Instead the Americans, "...pushed hard to identify the SNA" according to U.S. Special Envoy to Somalia Robert B. Oakley. The Somali National Alliance was consequently directly named, and became an enemy of UNOSOM. As the leader of the SNA, Aidid was still held accountable, although he was not captured.[33][34]

Adm. Jonathan Howe, the United Nations envoy to Somalia heading UNOSOM II, would announce on UN radio that a full investigation would be made into the affair, and appropriate steps taken against those responsible. It was soon after this that he put out the infamous $25,000 bounty on Aidid's head. The SNA would counter with a $1,000,000 bounty on Howe.[17]

Resolution 837 would lead to a state of war between the SNA and UNOSOM II.[18]

UNOSOM II - SNA conflict edit

Following the passing of Resolution 837 UNOSOM II forces would begin making offensive strikes all over Mogadishu with AC-130 gunships and helicopters.[35][36] On advice from the UN, all aid work in the city came to a swift halt as the military campaign against Aidid began.[21] The UN would proceed to officially deal Aidid out of the Somali nation-building process.[37] Following the attack on the Pakistanis, Johnathan Howe would begin to push Washington for more help in arresting Aidid, as he convinced that apprehending him, followed by trying him as a war criminal and removing Aidid from Somalia - would help abate the raging civil war.[37]

UNOSOM would begin to greatly increase its firepower in Mogadishu and started making deliberate shows of force with Italian and American helicopters over the city.[38][39] The American Quick Reaction Force, after having been split up into several different hot spots in Somalia, was entirely recalled to Mogadishu.[17][40] On the 17th of June, Aidid's compound would be directly targeted by AC-130 gunships in retaliation and Radio Mogadishu itself would also be destroyed.[40][41][42]

Howe had also requested the deployment of Delta Force that June following the clash, but was rejected by President Clinton.[43] Howe had envisioned the small, secret Army unit dispatch small groups of well-trained soldiers who could mount a bloodless arrest of Aidid. Despite Clintons rejection, Delta began training for the operation early in the summer and commanders dispatched an assessment team to Somalia in June. They reported that Aidid could easily be grabbed off the street. Clinton would finally agree to Howes request following the deliberate killings of US troops in August 1993.[37]

1994 UN Inquiry edit

The 1994 United Nations investigation into the UNOSOM - SNA conflict and 5 June 1993 would conclude that in absence of a "...more convincing explanation," it believed the Somali National Alliance was most likely behind the attack. Despite this, the commission noted that no evidence existed to back previous UNOSOM assertions that the attack had been pre-planned or pre-meditated by the SNA, and further noted that the incident had likely been a spontaneous reaction.[18]

References edit

  1. ^ a b Secretary-General, Un (1994-06-01). "UN Commission of Inquiry Established under Security Council Resolution 885 (1994) to Investigate Armed Attacks on UNOSOM II": 22. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ^ a b "Aidid wants neutral commission to investigate bloodbath". Agence France Presse. 7 June 1993. Mohamed Farah Aidid, on Monday urged the U.N. Security Council to appoint a "neutral commission" to investigate clashes in Mogadishu that killed 22 Pakistani U.N. troops. General Aidid accused the Pakistani troops of sparking the fighting by firing into a crowd of civilians
  3. ^ Secretary-General, Un (1 June 1994). "Report of the Commission of Inquiry Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 885 (1994) to Investigate Armed Attacks on UNOSOM II Personnel Which Led to Casualties Among Them". Archived from the original on 8 August 2022.
  4. ^ "Peacemaking at the Crossroads: Consolidation of the 1993 Mudug Peace Agreement" (PDF). Puntland Development Research Centre.
  5. ^ a b c d Secretary-General, Un (1 June 1994). "Report of the Commission of Inquiry Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 885 (1994) to Investigate Armed Attacks on UNOSOM II Personnel Which Led to Casualties Among Them". Archived from the original on 8 August 2022.
  6. ^ a b Drysdale 1994, p. 167-168.
  7. ^ Drysdale 1994, p. 177.
  8. ^ SOMALI SOLUTIONS: Creating conditions for a gender-just peace (PDF). Oxfam. 2015.
  9. ^ Secretary-General, Un (1 June 1994). "Report of the Commission of Inquiry Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 885 (1994) to Investigate Armed Attacks on UNOSOM II Personnel Which Led to Casualties Among Them". Archived from the original on 8 August 2022.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h Oakley, Robert B. (1995). Somalia and Operation Restore Hope: Reflections on Peacemaking and Peacekeeping. United States: United States Institute of Peace Press. pp. 115–121. ISBN 1878379410.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Peterson, Scott (2000). Me against my brother : at war in Somalia, Sudan, and Rwanda : a journalist reports from the battlefields of Africa. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92198-8. OCLC 43287853.
  12. ^ a b Drysdale 1994, p. 173-174.
  13. ^ a b c d Boulden, Jane (2001). Peace enforcement : the United Nations experience in Congo, Somalia, and Bosnia. Praeger. ISBN 0-275-96906-1. OCLC 925049446.
  14. ^ "UN troops died 'trying to take Somali radio station': Security Council". The Independent. 1993-06-07. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
  15. ^ Lyman, Rick (6 Oct 1993). "The Day Somalia Fell Apart - Again -- June 5 Incident Started Setback". archive.seattletimes.com. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
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  18. ^ a b c d Report of the Commission of Inquiry Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 885 (1993) to Investigate Armed Attack on UNOSOM II Personnel Which Led to Casualties Among Them. United Nations. 1994.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Yamin, Tughral (2019). UN Peacekeeping Operations in Somalia The Pakistani Perspective. Paramount Books. ISBN 9789696375227.
  20. ^ Drysdale 1994, p. 180-181.
  21. ^ a b c "UN troops died 'trying to take Somali radio station': Security Council". The Independent. 1993-06-07. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
  22. ^ Aadam 2011, p. 160-161.
  23. ^ Drysdale 1994, p. 183.
  24. ^ "Pakistan grieves for its sepoys: Ahmed Rashid explains why Islamabad". The Independent. 1993-06-07. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
  25. ^ Lorch, Donatella (1993-06-14). "20 Somalis Die When Peacekeepers Fire at Crowd". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-09-21.
  26. ^ "A little-known massacre explains Somalian hatred". Baltimore Sun. 15 October 1993. Retrieved 2022-09-21.
  27. ^ Richburg, Keith B. (1993-06-14). "U.N. UNIT KILLS 14 SOMALI CIVILIANS". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2022-09-21.
  28. ^ "U.N. troops kill 14 protesters". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved 2022-09-21.
  29. ^ "Pakistanis Fire on Somali Civilians; U.N. Renews Raids". Los Angeles Times. 14 June 1993. Retrieved 2022-09-21.
  30. ^ "14 Somali protesters killed". Journal Times. 14 June 1993. Retrieved 2022-09-21.
  31. ^ Binet, Laurence (2013). Somalia 1991-1993: Civil War, Famine Alert and a UN "Military-Humanitarian" Intervention. Médecins Sans Frontières. pp. 183–184.
  32. ^ "UN demands arrests in ambush: Somali attack leaves 22 Pakistani soldiers dead". The Globe and Mail. 7 June 1993.
  33. ^ Bedjaoui, Mohammed (1994). The new world order and the Security Council: testing the legality of its acts. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-7923-3434-7.
  34. ^ Hirsch, John L. (1996). Somalia and operation restore hope reflections on peacemaking and peacekeeping. United States Inst. of Peace Pr. p. 118. ISBN 1-878379-41-0. OCLC 246109966.
  35. ^ "U.N. Forces Attack Somali Weapon Sites : Africa: U.S.-led assault targets clan leader Aidid's radio station, compounds and warehouses in retaliation for the ambush-killing of 23 Pakistani peacekeepers". Los Angeles Times. 1993-06-12. Retrieved 2022-03-16.
  36. ^ "US bombs Somali warlord's arms cache after attacks: Artillery and". The Independent. 1993-06-06. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
  37. ^ a b c "A Wrong Turn In Somalia -- An Ill-Conceived Copter Raid Turned Many Somalis Against U.S. Forces | The Seattle Times". archive.seattletimes.com. Retrieved 2022-04-25.
  38. ^ "U.S. Sends Gunships to Aid U.N. in Somalia : Africa: Wave of clan violence prompts move to beef up firepower. Military action against warlord is thought likely". Los Angeles Times. 1993-06-10. Retrieved 2022-03-16.
  39. ^ "Mogadishu awaits UN punishment of Aideed: US and French troops roll". The Independent. 1993-06-09. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
  40. ^ a b "TENSE STANDOFF IN SOMALIA". Chicago Tribune. 25 June 1993. Retrieved 2022-03-17.
  41. ^ Richburg, Keith B. (1993-06-18). "U.N. TROOPS BATTLE SOMALIS". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2022-03-17.
  42. ^ "SOMALI GUNMEN WOUND 2 U.S. SOLDIERS". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2022-03-17.
  43. ^ Bowden, Mark (2010). Black Hawk Down : A Story of Modern War. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-4473-7. OCLC 456177378.

Bibliography edit

  • Aadam, Cabdishakuur Mire (2011). Kobocii: Islaamiyiinta Soomaaliya 1952 - 2002 (in Somali). Illays Media Center. pp. 155–166. ISBN 9780954955588. OCLC 867835903.
  • Drysdale, John (1994). Whatever Happened to Somalia?: A tale of tragic blunders. Haan. ISBN 1874209510.
  • Prunier, Gérard (1997). Clarke, Walter; Herbst, Jeffery (eds.). Learning from Somalia : The Lessons of Armed Humanitarian Intervention. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-2793-8. OCLC 35849136.
  • Peterson, Scott (2000). Me Against My Brother: At War in Somalia, Sudan, and Rwanda: A Journalist Reports From the Battlefields of Africa. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415921985. OCLC 43287853.
  • Pouligny, Béatrice (2006). Peace operations seen from below : UN missions and local people. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press. ISBN 1-56549-224-2. OCLC 64486263.

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