The term ponderomotive comes from the Latin ponder- (meaning weight) and the english motive (having to do with motion).^[2]

The derivation of the ponderomotive force expression proceeds as follows.

Consider a particle under the action of a non-uniform electric field oscillating at frequency ${\displaystyle \omega }$  in the x-direction. The equation of motion is given by:

${\displaystyle {\ddot {x}}=g(x)\cos(\omega t),}$ 

neglecting the effect of the associated oscillating magnetic field.

If the length scale of variation of ${\displaystyle g(x)}$  is large enough, then the particle trajectory can be divided into a slow time (secular) motion and a fast time (micro)motion:^[3]

${\displaystyle x=x_{0}+x_{1}}$ 

where ${\displaystyle x_{0}}$  is the slow drift motion and ${\displaystyle x_{1}}$  represents fast oscillations. Now, let us also assume that ${\displaystyle x_{1}\ll x_{0}}$ . Under this assumption, we can use Taylor expansion on the force equation about ${\displaystyle x_{0}}$ , to get:

${\displaystyle {\ddot {x}}_{0}+{\ddot {x}}_{1}=\left[g(x_{0})+x_{1}g'(x_{0})\right]\cos(\omega t)}$ 

${\displaystyle {\ddot {x}}_{0}\ll {\ddot {x}}_{1}}$ , and because ${\displaystyle x_{1}}$  is small, ${\displaystyle g(x_{0})\gg x_{1}g'(x_{0})}$ , so

${\displaystyle {\ddot {x}}_{1}=g(x_{0})\cos(\omega t)}$ 

On the time scale on which ${\displaystyle x_{1}}$  oscillates, ${\displaystyle x_{0}}$  is essentially a constant. Thus, the above can be integrated to get:

${\displaystyle x_{1}=-{\frac {g(x_{0})}{\omega ^{2}}}\cos(\omega t)}$ 

Substituting this in the force equation and averaging over the ${\displaystyle 2\pi /\omega }$  timescale, we get,

${\displaystyle {\ddot {x}}_{0}=-{\frac {g(x_{0})g'(x_{0})}{2\omega ^{2}}}}$ 

${\displaystyle \Rightarrow {\ddot {x}}_{0}=-{\frac {1}{4\omega ^{2}}}\left.{\frac {d}{dx}}\left[g(x)^{2}\right]\right|_{x=x_{0}}}$ 

Thus, we have obtained an expression for the drift motion of a charged particle under the effect of a non-uniform oscillating field.

Instead of a single charged particle, there could be a gas of charged particles confined by the action of such a force. Such a gas of charged particles is called plasma. The distribution function and density of the plasma will fluctuate at the applied oscillating frequency and to obtain an exact solution, we need to solve the Vlasov Equation. But, it is usually assumed that the time averaged density of the plasma can be directly obtained from the expression for the force expression for the drift motion of individual charged particles:^[4]

${\displaystyle {\bar {n}}(x)=n_{0}\exp \left[-{\frac {e}{\kappa T}}\Phi _{\text{P}}(x)\right]}$ 

where ${\displaystyle \Phi _{\text{P}}}$  is the ponderomotive potential and is given by

${\displaystyle \Phi _{\text{P}}(x)={\frac {m}{4\omega ^{2}}}\left[g(x)\right]^{2}}$ 

Instead of just an oscillating field, a permanent field could also be present. In such a situation, the force equation of a charged particle becomes:

${\displaystyle {\ddot {x}}=h(x)+g(x)\cos(\omega t)}$ 

To solve the above equation, we can make a similar assumption as we did for the case when ${\displaystyle h(x)=0}$ . This gives a generalized expression for the drift motion of the particle:

${\displaystyle {\ddot {x}}_{0}=h(x_{0})-{\frac {g(x_{0})g'(x_{0})}{2\omega ^{2}}}}$ 

The idea of a ponderomotive description of particles under the action of a time-varying field has applications in areas like:

• High harmonic generation
• Plasma acceleration of particles
• Plasma propulsion engine especially the Electrodeless plasma thruster
• Quadrupole ion trap
• Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy as a source of high energy THz radiation in laser-induced air plasmas

The quadrupole ion trap uses a linear function ${\displaystyle g(x)=x}$  along its principal axes. This gives rise to a harmonic oscillator in the secular motion with the so-called trapping frequency ${\displaystyle \Omega \propto {\frac {qV}{m\omega d_{0}^{2}}}}$ , where ${\displaystyle q,m,V,\omega ,d_{0}}$  are the charge and mass of the ion, the peak amplitude and the frequency of the radiofrequency (rf) trapping field, and the ion-to-electrode distance respectively ^[5]. Note that a larger rf frequency lowers the trapping frequency.

The ponderomotive force also plays an important role in laser induced plasmas as a major density lowering factor.

Often, however, the assumed slow-time independency of ${\displaystyle \Phi _{P}}$  is too restrictive, an example being the ultra-short, intense laser pulse-plasma(target) interaction. Here a new ponderomotive effect comes into play, the ponderomotive memory effect.^[6] The result is a weakening of the ponderomotive force and the generation of wake fields and ponderomotive streamers.^[7] In this case the fast-time averaged density becomes for a Maxwellian plasma: ${\displaystyle {\bar {n}}(x,t)=n_{0}e^{-\Psi }[1+{\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}\int _{-\infty }^{+\infty }dve^{-v^{2}/2}M(x,v,t)]}$ , where ${\displaystyle M(x,v,t):=\int _{-\infty }^{t}d\tau \partial _{\tau }\Psi (x-v(t-\tau ),\tau )}$  and ${\displaystyle \Psi (x,t):={\frac {e}{\kappa T}}\Phi _{P}(x,t)}$ .

General

• Schmidt, George (1979). Physics of High Temperature Plasmas, second edition. Academic Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-12-626660-3.

Citations

• Cary, J. R.; Kaufman, A. N. (1981). "Ponderomotive effects in collisionless plasma: A Lie transform approach". Phys. Fluids. 24 (7): 1238. Bibcode:1981PhFl...24.1238C. doi:10.1063/1.863527. S2CID 56314589.
• Grebogi, C.; Littlejohn, R. G. (1984). "Relativistic ponderomotive Hamiltonian". Phys. Fluids. 27 (8): 1996. Bibcode:1984PhFl...27.1996G. doi:10.1063/1.864855.
• Morales, G. J.; Lee, Y. C. (1974). "Ponderomotive-Force Effects in a Nonuniform Plasma". Phys. Rev. Lett. 33 (17): 1016–1019. Bibcode:1974PhRvL..33.1016M. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.33.1016.
• Lamb, B. M.; Morales, G. J. (1983). "Ponderomotive effects in nonneutral plasmas". Phys. Fluids. 26 (12): 3488. Bibcode:1983PhFl...26.3488L. doi:10.1063/1.864132. Archived from the original on September 23, 2017.
• Shah, K.; Ramachandran, H. (2008). "Analytic, nonlinearly exact solutions for an rf confined plasma". Phys. Plasmas. 15 (6): 062303. Bibcode:2008PhPl...15f2303S. doi:10.1063/1.2926632. Archived from the original on 2013-02-23.
• Bucksbaum, P. H.; Freeman, R. R.; Bashkansky, M.; McIlrath, T. J. (1987). "Role of the ponderomotive potential in above-threshold ionization". Journal of the Optical Society of America B. 4 (5): 760. Bibcode:1987JOSAB...4..760B. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.205.4672. doi:10.1364/josab.4.000760.