1669 - In his book De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento[1]Nicolas Steno asserted that, although the number and size of crystal faces may vary from one crystal to another, the angles between corresponding faces are always the same. This was the original statement of the first law of crystallography (Steno's law).[2]
18th Centuryedit
1723 - Moritz Anton Cappeller introduced the term ‘crystallography’.[3]
1766 - Pierre-Joseph Macquer, in his Dictionnaire de Chymie, promoted mechanisms of crystallization based on the idea that crystals are composed of polyhedral molecules (primitive integrantes).[4]
1772 - Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle developed geometrical ideas on crystal structure in his Essai de Cristallographie. He also described the twinning phenomenon in crystals.[5]
1781 - Abbé René Just Haüy (often termed the "Father of Modern Crystallography"[6]) discovered that crystals always cleave along crystallographic planes. Based on this observation, and the fact that the inter-facial angles in each crystal species always have the same value, Haüy concluded that crystals must be periodic and composed of regularly arranged rows of tiny polyhedra (molécules intégrantes). This theory explained why all crystal planes are related by small rational numbers (the law of rational indices).[7][8]
1783 - Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle in the second edition of his Cristallographie used the contact goniometer to discover the law of constant interfacial angles: angles are constant and characteristic for crystals of the same chemical substance.[9]
1784 - René Just Haüy published his Law of Decrements: a crystal is composed of molecules arranged periodically in three dimensions.[10]
1795 - René Just Haüy lectured on his Law of Symmetry: “[…] the manner in which Nature creates crystals is always obeying [...] the law of the greatest possible symmetry, in the sense that oppositely situated but corresponding parts are always equal in number, arrangement, and form of their faces”.[11]
19th Centuryedit
1801 - René Just Haüy published his multi-volume Traité de Minéralogie in Paris. A second edition under the title Traité de Cristallographie was published in 1822.[12][13]
1801 - Déodat de Dolomieu published his Sur la philosophie minéralogique et sur l'espèce minéralogique in Paris.
1815 - Christian Samuel Weiss, founder of the dynamist school of crystallography, developed a geometric treatment of crystals in which crystallographic axes are the basis for classification of crystals rather than Haüy’s polyhedral molecules.[15]
1822 - Friedrich Mohs attempted to bring the molecular approach of Haüy and the geometric approach of Weiss into agreement.[17]
1823 - Franz Ernst Neumann invented a system of crystal face notation, by using the reciprocals of the intercepts with crystal axes, which becomes the standard for the next 60 years.[18]
1824 - Ludwig August Seeber conceived of the concept of using an array of discrete (molecular) points to represent a crystal.[19]
1877 - Ernest-François Mallard, building on the work of Auguste Bravais, published a memoir[32] on optically “anomalous” crystals (that is, those crystals the morphology of which seems to be of greater symmetry than their optics), in which the importance of crystal twinning and "pseudosymmetry"[33] were used as explanatory concepts.
1895 - Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen on 8 November 1895 produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range now known as X-rays or Röntgen rays, an achievement that earned him the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901. X-rays became the major mode of crystallographic research in the 20th century.[44]
1913 - Lawrence Bragg published the first observation of x-ray diffraction by crystals.[51]
1913 - Georges Friedel stated Friedel's law, a property of Fourier transforms of real functions. Friedel's law is used in X-ray diffraction, crystallography and scattering from real potential within the Born approximation.[52]
1914 - Max von Laue won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals."[53]
1915 - William and Lawrence Bragg shared the Nobel Prize in Physics "for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays."[54]
1917 - Albert W. Hull independently discovered powder diffraction in researching the crystal structure of metals.[57][58]
1922 - Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff published a book[59] containing tables with the positional coordinates permitted by the symmetry elements. These positions are now known as Wyckoff positions. This book was the forerunner of the International tables for crystallography, which first appeared in 1935.
1930 - Lawrence Bragg assembled the first classification of silicates, describing their structure in terms of grouping of SiO4 tetrahedra.[71]
1931 - Paul Ewald and Carl Hermann published the first volume of the Strukturbericht (Structure Report),[72] which established the systematic classification of crystal structure prototypes, also known as the Strukturbericht designation.
1932 - W. H. Zachariasen published an article entitled The atomic arrangement in glass,[74] which perhaps had more influence than any other published work on the science of glass.
1934 - Arthur Patterson introduced the Patterson function which uses diffraction intensities to determine the interatomic distances within a crystal, setting limits to the possible phase values for the reflected x-rays.[77]
1934 - Martin Julian Buerger developed the equi-inclination Weissenberg X-ray camera. Buerger invented the precession camera in 1942.[78]
1935 - First publication of the International tables for the determination of crystal structures edited by Carl Hermann.[85] The successor volumes are currently published by IUCr as the International tables for crystallography.[86]
1936 - Peter Debye won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his contributions to our knowledge of molecular structure through his investigations on dipole moments and on the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases."[89]
1952 - David Sayre suggested that the phase problem could be more easily solved by having at least one more intensity measurement beyond those of the Bragg peaks in each dimension. This concept is understood today as oversampling.[106]
1954 - Ukichiro Nakaya's book Snow Crystals: Natural and Artificial, dedicated to the modern study of snow crystals, is published.[113]
1954 - Linus Pauling won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances", specifically the determination of the structure of the α-helix and the β-sheet in polypeptide chains.”[114]
1962 - Max Perutz and John Kendrew shared the Nobel Prize for Chemistry "for their studies of the structures of globular proteins", namely haemoglobin and myoglobin respectively[119]
1962 - James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material," specifically for their determination of the structure of DNA.[120]
1963 - Isabella Karle developed the symbolic addition procedure that connects the theoretical Direct Methods apparatus and actual X-ray diffraction data.[121]
1964 - Dorothy Hodgkin won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances." The substances included penicillin and vitamin B12.[122]
1968 - Aaron Klug and David DeRosier used electron microscopy to visualise the structure of the tail of bacteriophage T4, a common virus, thus signalling a breakthrough in macromolecular structure determination.[126]
1971 - Establishment of the Protein Data Bank (PDB). At PDB, Edgar Meyer develops the first general software tools for handling and visualizing protein structural data.[128][129]
1973 - Geoffrey Wilkinson and Ernst Fischer shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so called sandwich compounds”, specifically the structure of ferrocene.[131]
1976 - William Lipscomb won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for his studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding.”[132]
1976 - Boris Delaunay, building on his work in the 1930s,[133] proved that the regularity of a system of points, an (r, R) system or Delone set, can be established by postulating the points' congruence within a sphere of a defined finite radius.[134]
1982 - Aaron Klug won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes.”[138]
1984 - Dan Shechtman discovered quasicrystals for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2011. These structures have no unit cell and no periodic translational order but have long-range bond orientational order, which generates a defined diffraction pattern.[141]
1984 - Aaron Klug and his colleagues provided an advance in determining the structure of protein–nucleic acid complexes when they solved the structure of the 206-kDa nucleosome core particle.[142]
1985 - Jerome Karle shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Herbert A. Hauptman "for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the determination of crystal structures". Karle developed the theoretical basis for multiple-wavelength anomalous diffraction (MAD).[143]
1986 - Ernst Ruska shared the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first electron microscope".[145]
1987 - John M. Cowley and Alexander F. Moodie shared the first IUCrEwald Prize "for their outstanding achievements in electron diffraction and microscopy. They carried out pioneering work on the dynamical scattering of electrons and the direct imaging of crystal structures and structure defects by high-resolution electron microscopy. The physical optics approach used by Cowley and Moodie takes into account many hundreds of scattered beams, and represents a far-reaching extension of the dynamical theory for X-rays, first developed by P.P. Ewald".[146]
1987 - Don Craig Wiley and Jack L. Strominger solved the structure of the soluble portion of a class I MHC molecule known as HLA-A2.[147] This structure revealed the presence of a pocket which holds the antigenicpeptide, which is recognized by the receptors of T cells only when firmly bound to the MHC product and presented at the surface of an infected cell. This structure strongly influenced the concept of T cell recognition in future work.[148]
1989 - Gautam R. Desiraju defined crystal engineering as "the understanding of intermolecular interactions in the context of crystal packing and the utilization of such understanding in the design of new solids with desired physical and chemical properties."[150]
1991 - Georg E. Schulz and colleagues reported the structure of a bacterial porin, a membrane protein with a cylindrical shape (a ‘β-barrel’).[151]
1992 - The International Union of Crystallography changed the IUCr’s definition of a crystal to “any solid having an essentially discrete diffraction pattern” thus formally recognizing quasicrystals.[152]
1992 - First release of the CNS software package by Axel T. Brunger. CNS is an extension of X-PLOR released in 1987,[153] and is used for solving structures based on X-ray diffraction or solution NMR data.[154]
1994 - Bertram Brockhouse and Clifford Shull shared the Nobel Prize in Physics "for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter". Specifically, Brockhouse "for the development of neutron spectroscopy" and Shull "for the development of the neutron diffraction technique."[156]
1997 - Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker shared one half of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)" Walker determined the crystal structure of ATP synthase, and this structure confirmed a mechanism earlier proposed by Boyer, mainly on the basis of isotopic studies.[159]
1999 - Jianwei Miao and his co-workers performed the first experiment on extending crystallography to allow structural determination of non-crystalline specimens which has become known as coherent diffraction imaging (CDI), lensless imaging, or computational microscopy.[162][163]
2001 - Harry F. Noller’s group published the 5.5-Å structure of the complete Thermus thermophilus 70S ribosome. This structure revealed that the major functional regions of the ribosome were based on RNA, establishing the primordial role of RNA in translation.[165]
2001 - Roger Kornberg’s group published the 2.8-Å structure of Saccharomyces cerevisiae RNA polymerase. The structure allowed both transcription initiation and elongation mechanisms to be deduced. Simultaneously, this group reported the structure of free RNA polymerase II, which contributed towards the eventual visualisation of the interaction between DNA, RNA, and the ribosome.[166][167]
2007 - Two X-ray crystal structures of a GPCR, the human β2 adrenergic receptor, were published. Because many drugs elicit their biological effect(s) by binding to a GPCR, the structures of these and other GPCRs may be used to develop efficacious drugs with few side effects.[168][169]
2009 - Judith Howard and her collaborators created the Olex2 crystallographic software package.[171]
2011 - Gustaaf Van Tendeloo led a team including Sandra Van Aert, Kees Joost Batenburg et. al. determined the 3D atomic positions of a silver nanoparticle using electron tomography.[172]
2017 - Lukas Palatinus and co-workers used dynamical structure refinement to resolve hydrogen atom positions in nanocrystals using electron diffraction.[179][180]
2021 - Kenneth G. Libbrecht published the book Snow Crystals: A Case Study in Spontaneous Structure Formation, summarizing his decade-spanning work on the subject for engineering conditions for designer ice crystals.[184][185]
Referencesedit
^Steno, N. (1669). De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento, Star, Florence
^Molčanov, Krešimir; Stilinović, Vladimir (2014). "Chemical Crystallography before X-ray Diffraction". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 53 (3): 638–652. doi:10.1002/anie.201301319. PMID 24065378.
^Cappeller, M.A. (1723). Prodromus crystallographiae de crystallis improprie sic dictis commentarium, H.R. Wyssing, Lucerne
^Macquer, P.-J. (1766). Dictionnaire de Chymie, Lacombe, Paris
^Romé de l'Isle, J.-B. L. (1772). Essai de Cristallographie, Knapen & Delaguete, Paris
^Brock, H. (1910). The Catholic Encyclopedia, Robert Appleton Company, New York.
^Haüy, R.J. (1782). Sur la structure des cristaux de grenat, Observations sur la physique, sur l’histoire naturelle et sur les arts, XIX, 366-370
^Haüy, R.J. (1782). Sur la structure des cristaux des spaths calcaires, Observations sur la physique, sur l’histoire naturelle et sur les arts. XX, 33-39
^Romé de l'Isle, J.-B. L. (1783). Cristallographie ou description des formes propres à tous les corps du règne minéral dans l'état de combinaison saline, pierreuse ou métallique, Paris
^Haüy, R.J. (1784). Essai d’une théorie sur la structure des cristaux, appliquée à plusieurs genres de substances cristallisées, Chez Gogué et Née de La Rochelle, Paris
^Haüy, R.J. (1795). Leçons de Physique, in Séances des Ecoles normales […], L. Reynier, Paris
^Haüy, R.J. (1801). Traité de Minéralogie, Chez Louis, Paris
^Haüy, R.J. (1822). Traité de Cristallographie, Bachelier et Huzard, Paris
^Haüy, R.J. (1815). Memoire sur une loi de cristallisation appelée loi de symmétrie, Mémoires du Muséum d’Histoire naturelle 1, 81-101, 206-225, 273-298, 341-352
^Weiss, C.S. (1815). Uebersichtliche Darstellung der versschiedenen naturlichen Abteilungen der Kristallisations-Systeme, Abh. K. Akad. Wiss., Berlin. 289-337, 1814-1815.
^Melhado, Evan M. (1980-01-01). "Mitscherlich's discovery of isomorphism". Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences. 11 (1): 87–123. doi:10.2307/27757472. ISSN 0073-2672. JSTOR 27757472.
^Mohs, F. (1822). On the crystallographic discoveries and systems of Weiss and Mohs, The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, VIII, 275-290
^Neumann, F.E. (1823). Beiträge zur Krystallonomie, Ernst Siegfried Mittler, Berlin und Posen
^Seeber, L.A. (1824). Versuch einer Erklärung des inneren Baues der Festen Körper, Ann. Phys., 76, 229-248, 349-371
^Hessel J.F.C. (1830). Krystallometrie oder Krystallonomie und Krystallographie, in Gehler’s Physikalisches Wörterbuch, 8, 1023-1360, Schwickert, Leipzig
^Wöhler; Liebig (1832). "Untersuchungen über das Radikal der Benzoesäure". Annalen der Pharmacie (in German). 3 (3): 249–282. doi:10.1002/jlac.18320030302. hdl:2027/hvd.hxdg3f.
^Miller, W.H. (1839). A Treatise on Crystallography, Deighton-Parker, Cambridge, London
^Delafosse, G. (1840). De la Structure des Cristaux […] sur l’Importance de l’etude de la Symétrie dans les différentes Branches de l’Histoire Naturelle […], Fain and Thunot, Paris
^Frankenheim, M.L. (1842). System der Kristalle. Nova Acta Acad. Naturae Curiosorum, 19, (2), 469-660
^Pasteur, L. (1848). Mémoire sur la relation qui peut exister entre la forme cristalline et la composition chimique, et sur la cause de la polarisation rotatoire (Memoir on the relationship that can exist between crystalline form and chemical composition, and on the cause of rotary polarization), Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences (Paris), 26, 535–538
^Vantomme, Ghislaine; Crassous, Jeanne (2021). "Pasteur and chirality: A story of how serendipity favors the prepared minds". Chirality. 33 (10): 597–601. doi:10.1002/chir.23349. ISSN 0899-0042. PMC9291139. PMID 34363261.
^Bravais, A. (1850). Mémoire sur les systèmes formés par des points distribués regulièrement sur un plan ou dans l’espace, J. l’Ecole Polytechnique 19, 1-128
^Bravais, M.A. (1949). On the systems formed by points regularly distributed on a plane or in space, English translation by Shaler, A.J., Crystallographic Society of America, Michigan. OCLC 1123365404
^Gadolin, A. (1871). Mémoire sur la déduction d’un seul principe de tous les systems cristallographiques avec leurs subdivisions (Memoir on the deduction from a single principle of all the crystal systems with their subdivisions), Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae., 9, 1-71
^Authier, A. (2013). Early days of x-ray crystallography, International Union of Crystallography Texts on Crystallography, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p.83 ISBN 9780198754053
^Nolze, Gert; Tokarski, Tomasz; Rychłowski, Łukasz (2023). "Use of electron backscatter diffraction patterns to determine the crystal lattice. Part 3. Pseudosymmetry". Journal of Applied Crystallography. 56 (2): 367–380. Bibcode:2023JApCr..56..367N. doi:10.1107/S1600576723000845. PMC10077860. PMID 37032972.
^Sohncke, L. (1879). Entwickelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur, B.G. Teubner, Leipzig
^Curie, P. and Curie, J. (1880). Développement par compression de l'électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées, Bulletin de Minéralogie, 3-4, 90-93
^Curie, P. and Curie, J. (1881). Contractions et dilatations produites par des tensions électriques dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées, Compt. Rend., 93, 1137–1140
^Reinitzer, Friedrich (1888). "Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins". Monatshefte für Chemie - Chemical Monthly. 9: 421–441. doi:10.1007/BF01516710.
^Lehmann, O. (1889). "Über fliessende Krystalle". Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. 4U: 462–472. doi:10.1515/zpch-1889-0434.
^Fedorov, E. (1891). The symmetry of regular systems of figures, Zap. Miner. Obshch. (Trans. Miner. Soc. Saint Petersburg), 28, 1-146
^Schoenflies, A. (1891). Kristallsysteme und Kristallstruktur. B. G. Teubner, Leipzig
^Barlow W. (1894). Über die Geometrischen Eigenschaften homogener starrer Strukturen und ihre Anwendung auf Krystalle (On the geometrical properties of homogeneous rigid structures and their application to crystals), Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Minerologie, 23, 1–63.
^Curie, P. (1894). "Sur la symétrie dans les phénomènes physiques, symétrie d'un champ électrique et d'un champ magnétique". Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée. 3 (1): 393–415. doi:10.1051/jphystap:018940030039300. ISSN 0368-3893.
^De Gennes, P. G. (1982). "Pierre curie and the role of symmetry in physical laws". Ferroelectrics. 40 (1): 125–129. doi:10.1080/00150198208218162. ISSN 0015-0193.
^"On a New Kind of Rays". Nature. 53 (1369): 274–276. 1896. doi:10.1038/053274b0.
^Barkla, C.G. (1905). "XIII. Polarised röntgen radiation". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical or Physical Character. 204 (372–386): 467–479. doi:10.1098/rsta.1905.0013. ISSN 0264-3952.
^Walter, B.; Pohl, R. (1908). "Zur Frage der Beugung der Röntgenstrahlen". Annalen der Physik (in German). 330 (4): 715–724. Bibcode:1908AnP...330..715W. doi:10.1002/andp.19083300405.
^Walter, B.; Pohl, R. (1909). "Weitere Versuche über die Beugung der Röntgenstrahlen". Annalen der Physik (in German). 334 (7): 331–354. Bibcode:1909AnP...334..331W. doi:10.1002/andp.19093340707.
^Laue, Max von (1912). Eine quantitative prüfung der theorie für die interferenz-erscheinungen bei Röntgenstrahlen, Sitzungsberichte der Kgl. Bayer. Akad. Der Wiss., 363–373
^Bragg, W.L. (1913). The diffraction of short electromagnetic waves by a crystal, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 17, 43-57
^Baumhauer, Heinrich (1912-12-01). "VII. Über die Krystalle des Carborundums". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie - Crystalline Materials. 50 (1–6): 33–39. doi:10.1524/zkri.1912.50.1.33. ISSN 2196-7105. S2CID 102105832.
^Bragg, W. L. (1913). "The structure of some crystals as indicated by their diffraction of X-rays". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character. 89 (610): 248–277. Bibcode:1913RSPSA..89..248B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1913.0083.
^Friedel G. (1913). Sur les symétries cristallines que peut révéler la diffraction des rayons Röntgen, Comptes Rendus., 157, 1533–1536
^Debye, P. and Scherrer P. (1916). Interferenzen an regellos orientierten Teilchen im Röntgenlicht. I., Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse, 1-15. eudml.org/doc/58947
^Ewald, P. P. (1916). "Zur Begründung der Kristalloptik". Annalen der Physik (in German). 354 (2): 117–143. Bibcode:1916AnP...354..117E. doi:10.1002/andp.19163540202.
^Hull., A. W. (1917). "A New Method of X-Ray Crystal Analysis". Physical Review. 10 (6): 661–696. Bibcode:1917PhRv...10..661H. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.10.661.
^Suits, C.G. and Lafferty, J.M. (1970). Albert Wallace Hull 1880—1966: a biographical memoir, National Academy of Sciences, Washington D.C., 20pp.
^Wyckoff, R.W.G. (1922). The analytical expression of the results of the theory of space-groups, Carnegie Institute of Washington. OCLC 3557642
^Dickinson, Roscoe G.; Raymond, Albert L. (1923). "The Crystal Structure of Hexamethylene-Tetramine" (PDF). Journal of the American Chemical Society. 45: 22–29. doi:10.1021/ja01654a003.
^Gonell, H. W.; Mark, H. (1923). "Röntgenographische Bestimmung der Strukturformel des Hexamethylentetramins". Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie. 107U: 181–218. doi:10.1515/zpch-1923-10715.
^Bragg, William; Gibbs, R. E. (1925). "The structure of α and β quartz". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character. 109 (751): 405–427. Bibcode:1925RSPSA.109..405B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1925.0135.
^Bernal, J. D. (1924). "The structure of graphite". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character. 106 (740): 749–773. Bibcode:1924RSPSA.106..749B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1924.0101.
^Goldschmidt, V. M. (1926). Geochemische Verteilungsgesetze, VII: Die Gesetze der Krystallochemie, Skrifter Norsk. Vid. Akademie, Oslo, Mat. Nat. Kl.
^Machatschki, F. (1928). Zur Frage der Struktur und Konstitution der Feldspäte, Zentralbl. Min., 97–100
^Lonsdale, K. (1928). "The Structure of the Benzene Ring". Nature. 122 (3082): 810. Bibcode:1928Natur.122..810L. doi:10.1038/122810c0.
^Niggli, Paul (1928). Krystallographische und strukturtheoretische Grundbegriffe (in German). Leipzig: Akad. Verl.-Ges. OCLC 180664864.
^Hermann, C. (1928). "XVI. Zur systematischen Strukturtheorie". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie - Crystalline Materials. 68 (1–6): 257–287. doi:10.1524/zkri.1928.68.1.257.
^Mauguin, Ch. (1931). "Sur le symbolisme des groupes de repetition on de symetrie des assemblages cristallins". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie - Crystalline Materials. 76 (1–6): 542–558. doi:10.1524/zkri.1931.76.1.542.
^Pauling, Linus (1929). "The Principles Determining the Structure of Complex Ionic Crystals". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 51 (4): 1010–1026. doi:10.1021/ja01379a006.
^Bragg, W. L. (1930). "XXV. The Structure of Silicates". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie - Crystalline Materials. 74 (1–6): 237–305. doi:10.1524/zkri.1930.74.1.237.
^Ewald, Paul Peter; Hermann, C (1931). Strukturbericht, 1913-1928 (in German). Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft. OCLC 29150452.
^Laves, F. (1931). "Ebenenteilung und Koordinationszahl". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie - Crystalline Materials. 78 (1–6): 208–241. doi:10.1524/zkri.1931.78.1.208.
^Zachariasen, W. H. (1932). "The Atomic Arrangement in Glass". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 54 (10): 3841–3851. doi:10.1021/ja01349a006.
^Rinne, Friedrich (1932-11-01). "Über Beziehungen der gewässerten Bromphenanthrensulfosäure zu organismischen Parakristallen". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie - Crystalline Materials. 82 (1–6): 379–393. doi:10.1524/zkri.1932.82.1.379. ISSN 2196-7105. S2CID 100926260.
^Rinne, Friedrich (1933). "Investigations and considerations concerning paracrystallinity". Transactions of the Faraday Society. 29 (140): 1016–1032. doi:10.1039/TF9332901016. ISSN 0014-7672.
^Patterson, A. L. (1934). "A Fourier Series Method for the Determination of the Components of Interatomic Distances in Crystals". Physical Review. 46 (5): 372–376. Bibcode:1934PhRv...46..372P. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.46.372.
^Frondel, C. (1988). Memorial of Martin Julian Buerger, April 8, l903 - February 26, 1986, American Mineralogist, 73 (11-12), 1483-1485, 1988
^Beevers, C. A.; Lipson, H. (1934). "The crystal structure of copper sulphate pentahydrate, CuSO 4 .5H 2 O". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character. 146 (858): 570–582. Bibcode:1934RSPSA.146..570B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1934.0173.
^Beevers, CA; Lipson, H. (1985). "A Brief History of Fourier Methods in Crystal-structure Determination". Australian Journal of Physics. 38 (3): 263. Bibcode:1985AuJPh..38..263B. doi:10.1071/PH850263.
^Laves, F. and Löhberg, K. (1934). Die Kristallstruktur von intermetallischen Verbindungen der Formel AB2, Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Göttingen 1, 59-66.
^Laves, F. and Witte, H. (1935). Die Kristallstruktur des MgNi2 und seine Beziehungen zu den Typen des MgCu2 und MgZn2, Metallwirtschaft, 14, 645-649.
^Schulze, Gustav E. R. (1939). "Zur Kristallchemie der intermetallischen AB2-Verbindungen (Laves-Phasen)". Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie und Angewandte Physikalische Chemie. 45 (12): 849–865. doi:10.1002/bbpc.19390451202.
^Barrett, C. and Massalski, T.B. (1980). Structure of metals, 3rd rev. ed., Pergamon Press, Oxford, 256-259. ISBN 9780080261713
^Hermann, C. (ed.) (1935). Internationale Tabellen zur Bestimmung von Kristallstrukturen, 2 vols., Gebrüder, Berlin, 692pp. OCLC 2131165
^Brock, C. (2014). International Tables for Crystallography, IUCr Newsletter, 22 (2).
^"X-Ray studies of the structure of hair, wool, and related fibres. II.- the molecular structure and elastic properties of hair keratin". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical or Physical Character. 232 (707–720): 333–394. 1933. doi:10.1098/rsta.1934.0010.
^Astbury, W. T.; Sisson, Wayne A. (1935). "X-ray studies of the structure of hair, wool, and related fibres - III—The configuration of the keratin molecule and its orientation in the biological cell". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A - Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 150 (871): 533–551. Bibcode:1935RSPSA.150..533A. doi:10.1098/rspa.1935.0121.
^Guinier, André (1939). "La diffraction des rayons X aux très petits angles : application à l'étude de phénomènes ultramicroscopiques". Annales de Physique (in French). 11 (12): 161–237. doi:10.1051/anphys/193911120161. ISSN 0003-4169.
^Brindley, G. W.; Robinson, Keith (1945). "Structure of kaolinite". Nature. 156 (3970): 661–662. Bibcode:1945Natur.156R.661B. doi:10.1038/156661b0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4054610.
^Kamminga, H. (1989). "The International Union of Crystallography: its formation and early development". Acta Crystallographica Section a Foundations of Crystallography. 45 (9): 581–601. Bibcode:1989AcCrA..45..581K. doi:10.1107/S0108767389003910.
^Shull, C. G.; Smart, J. Samuel (1949). "Detection of Antiferromagnetism by Neutron Diffraction". Physical Review. 76 (8): 1256–1257. Bibcode:1949PhRv...76.1256S. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.76.1256.2.
^Karle, J.; Hauptman, H. (1950). "The phases and magnitudes of the structure factors". Acta Crystallographica. 3 (3): 181–187. Bibcode:1950AcCry...3..181K. doi:10.1107/S0365110X50000446.
^Bijvoet, J. M.; Peerdeman, A. F.; Van Bommel, A. J. (1951). "Determination of the Absolute Configuration of Optically Active Compounds by Means of X-Rays". Nature. 168 (4268): 271–272. Bibcode:1951Natur.168..271B. doi:10.1038/168271a0.
^Pauling, Linus; Corey, Robert B.; Branson, H. R. (1951). "The structure of proteins: Two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 37 (4): 205–211. Bibcode:1951PNAS...37..205P. doi:10.1073/pnas.37.4.205. PMC1063337. PMID 14816373.
^Pauling, Linus; Corey, Robert B. (1951). "The Pleated Sheet, A New Layer Configuration of Polypeptide Chains". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 37 (5): 251–256. Bibcode:1951PNAS...37..251P. doi:10.1073/pnas.37.5.251. PMC1063350. PMID 14834147.
^Shubnikov, A.V. (1951). Symmetry and antisymmetry of finite figures, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Moscow (in Russian)
^Shubnikov, A.V. and Belov, N.V. (1964). Colored Symmetry, Holser, W.T. (ed.), New York, Pergamon. OCLC 530340
^Sayre, D. (1952). "Some implications of a theorem due to Shannon". Acta Crystallographica. 5 (6): 843. Bibcode:1952AcCry...5..843S. doi:10.1107/S0365110X52002276.
^Fischer, E. O.; Pfab, W. (1952). "Cyclopentadien-Metallkomplexe, ein neuer Typ metallorganischer Verbindungen". Zeitschrift für Naturforschung B. 7 (7): 377–379. doi:10.1515/znb-1952-0701.
^Wilkinson, Geoffrey (1975). "The iron sandwich. A recollection of the first four months". Journal of Organometallic Chemistry. 100: 273–278. doi:10.1016/S0022-328X(00)88947-0.
^Magnéli, A. (1953-06-10). "Structures of the ReO3-type with recurrent dislocations of atoms: 'homologous series' of molybdenum and tungsten oxides". Acta Crystallographica. 6 (6): 495–500. Bibcode:1953AcCry...6..495M. doi:10.1107/S0365110X53001381. ISSN 0365-110X. S2CID 98622295.
^Watson, J. D.; Crick, F. H. C. (1953). "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid". Nature. 171 (4356): 737–738. Bibcode:1953Natur.171..737W. doi:10.1038/171737a0. PMID 13054692.
^Franklin, Rosalind E.; Gosling, R. G. (1953). "Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate". Nature. 171 (4356): 740–741. Bibcode:1953Natur.171..740F. doi:10.1038/171740a0. PMID 13054694.
^Wilkins, M. H. F.; Stokes, A. R.; Wilson, H. R. (1953). "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids". Nature. 171 (4356): 738–740. Bibcode:1953Natur.171..738W. doi:10.1038/171738a0. PMID 13054693.
^Cruickshank, D. W. J. (1956-09-01). "The analysis of the anisotropic thermal motion of molecules in crystals". Acta Crystallographica. 9 (9): 754–756. Bibcode:1956AcCry...9..754C. doi:10.1107/s0365110x56002047. ISSN 0365-110X.
^Kendrew, J. C.; Dickerson, R. E.; Strandberg, B. E.; Hart, R. G.; Davies, D. R.; Phillips, D. C.; Shore, V. C. (1960). "Structure of Myoglobin: A Three-Dimensional Fourier Synthesis at 2 Å. Resolution". Nature. 185 (4711): 422–427. Bibcode:1960Natur.185..422K. doi:10.1038/185422a0. PMID 18990802.
^Perutz, M. F.; Rossmann, M. G.; Cullis, ANN F.; Muirhead, Hilary; Will, Georg; North, A. C. T. (1960). "Structure of Hæmoglobin: A Three-Dimensional Fourier Synthesis at 5.5-Å. Resolution, Obtained by X-Ray Analysis". Nature. 185 (4711): 416–422. Bibcode:1960Natur.185..416P. doi:10.1038/185416a0. PMID 18990801.
^Rossmann, M. G.; Blow, D. M. (1962). "The detection of sub-units within the crystallographic asymmetric unit". Acta Crystallographica. 15 (1): 24–31. Bibcode:1962AcCry..15...24R. doi:10.1107/S0365110X62000067.
^Karle, I. L.; Karle, J. (1963). "An application of a new phase determination procedure to the structure of cyclo(hexaglycyl)demihydrate". Acta Crystallographica. 16 (10): 969–975. Bibcode:1963AcCry..16..969K. doi:10.1107/S0365110X63002607.
^Blake, C. C. F.; Koenig, D. F.; Mair, G. A.; North, A. C. T.; Phillips, D. C.; Sarma, V. R. (1965). "Structure of Hen Egg-White Lysozyme: A Three-dimensional Fourier Synthesis at 2 Å Resolution". Nature. 206 (4986): 757–761. Bibcode:1965Natur.206..757B. doi:10.1038/206757a0. PMID 5891407.
^Johnson, Louise N.; Phillips, D. C. (1965). "Structure of Some Crystalline Lysozyme-Inhibitor Complexes Determined by X-Ray Analysis at 6 Å Resolution". Nature. 206 (4986): 761–763. Bibcode:1965Natur.206..761J. doi:10.1038/206761a0. PMID 5840126.
^Rietveld, H. M. (1967). "Line profiles of neutron powder-diffraction peaks for structure refinement". Acta Crystallographica. 22 (1): 151–152. Bibcode:1967AcCry..22..151R. doi:10.1107/S0365110X67000234.
^De Rosier, D. J.; Klug, A. (1968). "Reconstruction of Three Dimensional Structures from Electron Micrographs". Nature. 217 (5124): 130–134. Bibcode:1968Natur.217..130D. doi:10.1038/217130a0. PMID 23610788.
^Blundell, T. L.; Cutfield, J. F.; Cutfield, S. M.; Dodson, E. J.; Dodson, G. G.; Hodgkin, D. C.; Mercola, D. A.; Vijayan, M. (1971). "Atomic Positions in Rhombohedral 2-Zinc Insulin Crystals". Nature. 231 (5304): 506–511. Bibcode:1971Natur.231..506B. doi:10.1038/231506a0. PMID 4932997.
^"Crystallography: Protein Data Bank". Nature New Biology. 233 (42): 223. 1971. doi:10.1038/newbio233223b0.
^Meyer, Edgar F. (1971). "Interactive Computer Display for the Three Dimensional Study of Macromolecular Structures". Nature. 232 (5308): 255–257. Bibcode:1971Natur.232..255M. doi:10.1038/232255a0. PMID 4937078.
^Kim, S. H.; Quigley, G. J.; Suddath, F. L.; McPherson, A.; Sneden, D.; Kim, J. J.; Weinzierl, J.; Rich, Alexander (1973). "Three-Dimensional Structure of Yeast Phenylalanine Transfer RNA: Folding of the Polynucleotide Chain". Science. 179 (4070): 285–288. Bibcode:1973Sci...179..285K. doi:10.1126/science.179.4070.285. PMID 4566654.
^Delaunay, B. (1933). "Neue Darstellung der geometrischen Kristallographie". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie - Crystalline Materials. 84 (1–6): 109–149. doi:10.1524/zkri.1933.84.1.109.
^Delone, B.N., Dolbilin, N.P., Shtogrin, M.I. and Galiulin, R.V. (1976). A local criterion for regularity of a system of points, Sov. Math. Dokl., 17, 319-322
^Harrison, S. C.; Olson, A. J.; Schutt, C. E.; Winkler, F. K.; Bricogne, G. (1978). "Tomato bushy stunt virus at 2.9 Å resolution". Nature. 276 (5686): 368–373. Bibcode:1978Natur.276..368H. doi:10.1038/276368a0. PMID 19711552.
^Karle, Jerome (2009). "Some developments in anomalous dispersion for the structural investigation of macromolecular systems in biology". International Journal of Quantum Chemistry. 18: 357–367. doi:10.1002/qua.560180734.
^Helliwell, John R. (2001). "New opportunities in biological and chemical crystallography". Journal of Synchrotron Radiation. 9 (Pt 1): 1–8. doi:10.1107/S0909049501018465. PMID 11779939.
^Shechtman, D.; Blech, I.; Gratias, D.; Cahn, J. W. (1984). "Metallic Phase with Long-Range Orientational Order and No Translational Symmetry". Physical Review Letters. 53 (20): 1951–1953. Bibcode:1984PhRvL..53.1951S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.53.1951.
^Richmond, T. J.; Finch, J. T.; Rushton, B.; Rhodes, D.; Klug, A. (1984). "Structure of the nucleosome core particle at 7 Å resolution". Nature. 311 (5986): 532–537. Bibcode:1984Natur.311..532R. doi:10.1038/311532a0. PMID 6482966.
^Deisenhofer, J.; Epp, O.; Miki, K.; Huber, R.; Michel, H. (1985). "Structure of the protein subunits in the photosynthetic reaction centre of Rhodopseudomonas viridis at 3Å resolution". Nature. 318 (6047): 618–624. Bibcode:1985Natur.318..618D. doi:10.1038/318618a0. PMID 22439175.
^Bjorkman, P. J.; Saper, M. A.; Samraoui, B.; Bennett, W. S.; Strominger, J. L.; Wiley, D. C. (1987). "Structure of the human class I histocompatibility antigen, HLA-A2". Nature. 329 (6139): 506–512. Bibcode:1987Natur.329..506B. doi:10.1038/329506a0. PMID 3309677.
^Desiraju, G.R. (1989). Crystal engineering: the design of organic solids, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 312pp. ISBN 9780444874573
^Weiss, M. S.; Abele, U.; Weckesser, J.; Welte, W.; Schiltz, E.; Schulz, G. E. (1991). "Molecular Architecture and Electrostatic Properties of a Bacterial Porin". Science. 254 (5038): 1627–1630. Bibcode:1991Sci...254.1627W. doi:10.1126/science.1721242. PMID 1721242.
^"Report of the Executive Committee for 1991". Acta Crystallographica Section A. 48 (6): 922–946. 1992. Bibcode:1992AcCrA..48..922.. doi:10.1107/S0108767392008328.
^Brünger, Axel T.; Kuriyan, John; Karplus, Martin (1987). "Crystallographic R Factor Refinement by Molecular Dynamics". Science. 235 (4787): 458–460. Bibcode:1987Sci...235..458B. doi:10.1126/science.235.4787.458. PMID 17810339.
^Brünger, A. T.; Adams, P. D.; Clore, G. M.; Delano, W. L.; Gros, P.; Grosse-Kunstleve, R. W.; Jiang, J. S.; Kuszewski, J.; Nilges, M.; Pannu, N. S.; Read, R. J.; Rice, L. M.; Simonson, T.; Warren, G. L. (1998). "Crystallography & NMR System: A New Software Suite for Macromolecular Structure Determination". Acta Crystallographica Section D Biological Crystallography. 54 (5): 905–921. Bibcode:1998AcCrD..54..905B. doi:10.1107/s0907444998003254. PMID 9757107.
^Abrahams, Jan Pieter; Leslie, Andrew G. W.; Lutter, René; Walker, John E. (1994). "Structure at 2.8 Â resolution of F1-ATPase from bovine heart mitochondria". Nature. 370 (6491): 621–628. doi:10.1038/370621a0. PMID 8065448.
^Nogales, Eva; Wolf, Sharon G.; Downing, Kenneth H. (1998). "Structure of the αβ tubulin dimer by electron crystallography". Nature. 391 (6663): 199–203. Bibcode:1998Natur.391..199N. doi:10.1038/34465. PMID 9428769.
^Nogales, Eva; Whittaker, Michael; Milligan, Ronald A.; Downing, Kenneth H. (1999). "High-Resolution Model of the Microtubule". Cell. 96 (1): 79–88. doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80961-7. PMID 9989499.
^Miao, Jianwei; Charalambous, Pambos; Kirz, Janos; Sayre, David (1999). "Extending the methodology of X-ray crystallography to allow imaging of micrometre-sized non-crystalline specimens". Nature. 400 (6742): 342–344. Bibcode:1999Natur.400..342M. doi:10.1038/22498.
^Miao, Jianwei; Ishikawa, Tetsuya; Robinson, Ian K.; Murnane, Margaret M. (2015). "Beyond crystallography: Diffractive imaging using coherent x-ray light sources". Science. 348 (6234): 530–535. Bibcode:2015Sci...348..530M. doi:10.1126/science.aaa1394. PMID 25931551.
^Neutze, Richard; Wouts, Remco; Van Der Spoel, David; Weckert, Edgar; Hajdu, Janos (2000). "Potential for biomolecular imaging with femtosecond X-ray pulses". Nature. 406 (6797): 752–757. Bibcode:2000Natur.406..752N. doi:10.1038/35021099. PMID 10963603.
^Yusupov, Marat M.; Yusupova, Gulnara Zh.; Baucom, Albion; Lieberman, Kate; Earnest, Thomas N.; Cate, J. H. D.; Noller, Harry F. (2001). "Crystal Structure of the Ribosome at 5.5 Å Resolution". Science. 292 (5518): 883–896. Bibcode:2001Sci...292..883Y. doi:10.1126/science.1060089. PMID 11283358.
^Cramer, Patrick; Bushnell, David A.; Kornberg, Roger D. (2001). "Structural Basis of Transcription: RNA Polymerase II at 2.8 Ångstrom Resolution". Science. 292 (5523): 1863–1876. Bibcode:2001Sci...292.1863C. doi:10.1126/science.1059493. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0015-8729-F. PMID 11313498.
^Gnatt, Averell L.; Cramer, Patrick; Fu, Jianhua; Bushnell, David A.; Kornberg, Roger D. (2001). "Structural Basis of Transcription: An RNA Polymerase II Elongation Complex at 3.3 Å Resolution". Science. 292 (5523): 1876–1882. Bibcode:2001Sci...292.1876G. doi:10.1126/science.1059495. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0015-8723-C. PMID 11313499.
^Rasmussen, Søren G. F.; Choi, Hee-Jung; Rosenbaum, Daniel M.; Kobilka, Tong Sun; Thian, Foon Sun; Edwards, Patricia C.; Burghammer, Manfred; Ratnala, Venkata R. P.; Sanishvili, Ruslan; Fischetti, Robert F.; Schertler, Gebhard F. X.; Weis, William I.; Kobilka, Brian K. (2007). "Crystal structure of the human β2 adrenergic G-protein-coupled receptor". Nature. 450 (7168): 383–387. doi:10.1038/nature06325. PMID 17952055.
^Cherezov, Vadim; Rosenbaum, Daniel M.; Hanson, Michael A.; Rasmussen, Søren G. F.; Thian, Foon Sun; Kobilka, Tong Sun; Choi, Hee-Jung; Kuhn, Peter; Weis, William I.; Kobilka, Brian K.; Stevens, Raymond C. (2007). "High-Resolution Crystal Structure of an Engineered Human β 2 -Adrenergic G Protein–Coupled Receptor". Science. 318 (5854): 1258–1265. Bibcode:2007Sci...318.1258C. doi:10.1126/science.1150577. PMC2583103. PMID 17962520.
^Miao, Jianwei; Ercius, Peter; Billinge, Simon J. L. (2016). "Atomic electron tomography: 3D structures without crystals". Science. 353 (6306). doi:10.1126/science.aaf2157. PMID 27708010.
^Shi, Dan; Nannenga, Brent L; Iadanza, Matthew G; Gonen, Tamir (2013-11-19). "Three-dimensional electron crystallography of protein microcrystals". eLife. 2: e01345. doi:10.7554/eLife.01345. ISSN 2050-084X. PMC3831942. PMID 24252878.
^"The International Year of Crystallography 2014".
^Palatinus, L.; Brázda, P.; Boullay, P.; Perez, O.; Klementová, M.; Petit, S.; Eigner, V.; Zaarour, M.; Mintova, S. (2017-01-13). "Hydrogen positions in single nanocrystals revealed by electron diffraction". Science. 355 (6321): 166–169. Bibcode:2017Sci...355..166P. doi:10.1126/science.aak9652. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28082587.
^McCusker, Lynne B. (2017-01-13). "Electron diffraction and the hydrogen atom". Science. 355 (6321): 136. Bibcode:2017Sci...355..136M. doi:10.1126/science.aal4570. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28082549.
^"A million thanks | CCDC". www.ccdc.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 2024-03-27.
^Taylor, Robin; Wood, Peter A. (2019-08-28). "A Million Crystal Structures: The Whole Is Greater than the Sum of Its Parts". Chemical Reviews. 119 (16): 9427–9477. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00155. ISSN 0009-2665. PMID 31244003.
^Libbrecht, Kenneth G. (2021-12-09). "Snow Crystals". arXiv:1910.06389.
^Aubrey, Dan (2022-01-12). "Off the Presses: Kenneth Libbrecht's 'Snow Crystals'". Community News. Retrieved 2024-03-26.
Further readingedit
Authier, André (2013), Early days of x-ray crystallography, Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 9780198754053
Burke, John G. (1966), Origins of the science of crystals, University of California Press. LCCN 66--13584
Ewald, P. P. (ed.) (1962), 50 Years of x-ray diffraction, IUCR, Oosthoek
Kubbinga, Henk (2012). "Crystallography from Haüy to Laue: Controversies on the molecular and atomistic nature of solids". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie. 227 (1): 1–26. Bibcode:2012ZK....227....1K. doi:10.1524/zkri.2012.1459.
Lima-de-Faria, José (ed.) (1990), Historical atlas of crystallography, Springer Netherlands
Milestones in crystallography, Nature, August 2014
Whitlock, H. P. (1934). "A century of progress in crystallography" (PDF). The American Mineralogist. 19: 93–100.