Social media

Summary

Social media are interactive technologies that facilitate the creation, sharing and aggregation of content (such as ideas, interests, and other forms of expression) amongst virtual communities and networks.[1][2] Common features include:[2]

  • Online platforms that enable users to create and share content and participate in social networking.[2][3][4]
  • User-generated content—such as text posts or comments, digital photos or videos, and data generated through online interactions.[2][3]
  • Service-specific profiles that are designed and maintained by the social media organization.[2][5]
  • Social media helps the development of online social networks by connecting a user's profile with those of other individuals or groups.[2][5]
Social media app icons on a smartphone screen

The term social in regard to media suggests platforms enable communal activity. Social media can enhance and extend human networks.[6] Users access social media through web-based apps or custom apps on mobile devices. These interactive platforms allow individuals, communities, and organizations to share, co-create, discuss, participate in, and modify user-generated or self-curated content.[7][5][1] Social media is used to document memories, learn, and form friendships.[8] They may be used to promote people, companies, products, and ideas.[8] Social media can be used to consume, publish, or share news.

Popular social media platforms with over 100 million registered users include Twitter, Facebook, WeChat, ShareChat, Instagram, Pinterest, QZone, Weibo, VK, Tumblr, Baidu Tieba, Threads and LinkedIn. Depending on interpretation, other popular platforms that are sometimes referred to as social media services include YouTube, Letterboxd, QQ, Quora, Telegram, WhatsApp, Signal, LINE, Snapchat, Pinterest, Viber, Reddit, Discord, and TikTok. Wikis are examples of collaborative content creation.[according to whom?]

Social media outlets differ from old media (e.g. newspapers, TV, and radio broadcasting) in many ways, including quality,[9] reach, frequency, usability, relevancy, and permanence.[10] Social media outlets operate in a dialogic transmission system (many sources to many receivers) while traditional media operate under a monologic transmission model (one source to many receivers). For instance, a newspaper is delivered to many subscribers, and a radio station broadcasts the same programs to a city.[11]

Social media has been criticized for a range of negative impacts on children and teenagers, including exposure to inappropriate content, exploitation by adults, sleep problems, attention problems, feelings of exclusion, and various mental health maladies.[12][13] Social media has also received criticism as worsening political polarization and undermining democracy.

History

edit

Early computing

edit

The PLATO system was launched in 1960 at the University of Illinois and subsequently commercially marketed by Control Data Corporation. It offered early forms of social media features with innovations such as Notes, PLATO's message-forum application; TERM-talk, its instant-messaging feature; Talkomatic, perhaps the first online chat room; News Report, a crowdsourced online newspaper, and blog and Access Lists, enabling the owner of a note file or other application to limit access to a certain set of users, for example, only friends, classmates, or co-workers.

 
IMP log for the first message sent over the Internet, using ARPANET

ARPANET, which came online in 1967, had by the late 1970s enabled exchange of non-government/business ideas and communication, as evidenced by the network etiquette (or "netiquette") described in a 1982 handbook on computing at MIT's Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.[14] ARPANET evolved into the Internet in the 1990s.[15] Usenet, conceived by Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis in 1979 at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and Duke University, was the first open social media app, established in 1980.

 
A bulletin board system menu, featuring opinion polls and a "Who's been on today?" query

A precursor of the electronic bulletin board system (BBS), known as Community Memory, appeared by 1973. Mainstream BBSs arrived with the Computer Bulletin Board System in Chicago, which launched on February 16, 1978. Before long, most major US cities had more than one BBS, running on TRS-80, Apple II, Atari 8-bit computers, IBM PC, Commodore 64, Sinclair, and others. CompuServe, Prodigy, and AOL were three of the largest BBS companies and were the first to migrate to the Internet in the 1990s. Between the mid-1980s and the mid-1990s, BBSes numbered in the tens of thousands in North America alone.[16] Message forums were the signature BBS phenomenon throughout the 1980s and early 1990s.

In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee integrated HTML hypertext software with the Internet, creating the World Wide Web. This breakthrough led to an explosion of blogs, list servers, and email services. Message forums migrated to the web, and evolved into Internet forums, supported by cheaper access as well as the ability to handle far more people simultaneously.

These early text-based systems expanded to include images and video in the 21st century, aided by digital cameras and camera phones.[17]

Social media platforms

edit
 
SixDegrees, launched in 1997, is often regarded as the first social media site.

The evolution of online services progressed from serving as channels for networked communication to becoming interactive platforms for networked social interaction with the advent of Web 2.0.[6]

Social media started in the mid-1990s with the invention of platforms like GeoCities, Classmates.com, and SixDegrees.com.[18] While instant messaging and chat clients existed at the time, SixDegrees was unique as it was the first online service designed for people to connect using their actual names instead of anonymously. It boasted features like profiles, friends lists, and school affiliations, making it "the very first social networking site".[18][19] The platform's name was inspired by the "six degrees of separation" concept, which suggests that every person on the planet is just six connections away from everyone else.[20]

In the early 2000s, social media platforms gained widespread popularity with the likes of Friendster and Myspace, followed by Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter.[21]

Research from 2015 reported that globally, users spent 22% of their online time on social networks,[22] likely fueled by the availability of smartphones.[23] As of 2023 as many as 4.76 billion people used social media[24] some 59% of the global population.

Definition

edit

A 2015 review identified four features unique to social media services:[2]

In 2019, Merriam-Webster defined social media as "forms of electronic communication (such as websites for social networking and microblogging) through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content (such as videos)."[25]

Services

edit

Social media encompasses an expanding suite of services:[26]

Some services offer more than one type of service.[5]

Mobile social media

edit

Mobile social media refers to the use of social media on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. It is distinguished by its ubiquity, since users no longer have to be at a desk in order to participate on a computer. Mobile services can further make use of the user's immediate location to offer information, connections, or services relevant to that location.

According to Andreas Kaplan, mobile social media activities fall among four types:[27]

  • Space-timers (location and time-sensitive): Exchange of messages with relevance for a specific location at a specific point in time (posting about a traffic jam)
  • Space-locators (only location sensitive): Posts/messages with relevance for a specific location, read later by others (e.g. a restaurant review)
  • Quick-timers (only time sensitive): Transfer of traditional social media mobile apps to increase immediacy (e.g. posting status updates)
  • Slow-timers (neither location nor time sensitive): Transfer of traditional social media applications to mobile devices (e.g. watching a video)

Elements and function

edit

Virality

edit

Certain content has the potential to spread virally, an analogy for the way viral infections spread contagiously from individual to individual. One user spreads a post across their network, which leads those users to follow suit. A post from a relatively unknown user can reach vast numbers of people within hours. Virality is not guaranteed; few posts make the transition.

Viral marketing campaigns are particularly attractive to businesses because they can achieve widespread advertising coverage at a fraction of the cost of traditional marketing campaigns. Nonprofit organizations and activists may also attempt to spread content virally.

Social media sites provide specific functionality to help users re-share content, such as X's and Facebook's "like" option.[28]

Bots

edit

Bots are automated programs that operate on the internet.[29] They automate many communication tasks. This has led to the creation of an industry of bot providers.[30]

Chatbots and social bots are programmed to mimic human interactions such as liking, commenting, and following.[31] Bots have also been developed to facilitate social media marketing.[32] Bots have led the marketing industry into an analytical crisis, as bots make it difficult to differentiate between human interactions and bot interactions.[33] Some bots violate platforms' terms of use, which can result in bans and campaigns to eliminate bots categorically.[34] Bots may even pose as real people to avoid prohibitions.[35]

'Cyborgs'—either bot-assisted humans or human-assisted bots[35]—are used for both legitimate and illegitimate purposes, from spreading fake news to creating marketing buzz.[36][37][38] A common use claimed to be legitimate includes posting at a specific time.[39] A human writes a post content and the bot posts it a specific time. In other cases, cyborgs spread fake news.[35] Cyborgs may work as sock puppets, where one human pretends to be someone else, or operates multiple accounts, each pretending to be a person.

Patents

edit

A multitude of United States patents are related to social media, growing rapidly.[citation needed] As of 2020, over 5000 social media patent applications had been published in the United States.[40] Only slightly over 100 patents had been issued.[41]

Platform convergence

edit

As an instance of technological convergence, various social media platforms adapted functionality beyond their original scope, increasingly overlapping with each other.

Examples are the social hub site Facebook launching an integrated video platform in May 2007,[42] and Instagram, whose original scope was low-resolution photo sharing, introducing the ability to share quarter-minute 640×640 pixel videos[43] (late extended to a minute with increased resolution). Instagram later implemented stories (short videos self-destructing after 24 hours), a concept popularized by Snapchat, as well as IGTV, for seekable videos.[44] Stories were then adopted by YouTube.[45]

X, whose original scope was text-based microblogging, later adopted photo sharing,[46] then video sharing,[47][48] then a media studio for business users, after YouTube's Creator Studio.[49]

The discussion platform Reddit added an integrated image hoster replacing the external image sharing platform Imgur,[50] and then an internal video hosting service,[51] followed by image galleries (multiple images in a single post), known from Imgur.[52] Imgur implemented video sharing.[53][54]

YouTube rolled out a Community feature, for sharing text-only posts and polls.[55]

Usage statistics

edit

According to Statista, it is estimated that, in 2022, around 3.96 billion people were using social media globally. This number is up from 3.6 billion in 2020.[56]

The following is a list of the most popular social networking services based on the number of active users as of January 2024 per Statista.[57]

Social networking services with the most users, January 2024[58]
# Network Number of users (millions) Country of origin
1 Facebook 3,049 United States
2 YouTube 2,491 United States
3 WhatsApp 2,000 United States
3 Instagram 2,000 United States
5 TikTok 1,526 China
6 WeChat 1,336 China
7 Facebook Messenger 979 United States
8 Telegram 800 Russia
9 Douyin 752 China
10 Snapchat 750 United States
11 Kuaishou 685 China
12 Twitter 619 United States

Usage: before the pandemic

edit

A 2009 study suggested that individual differences may help explain who uses social media: extraversion and openness have a positive relationship with social media, while emotional stability has a negative sloping relationship with social media.[59] A 2015 study reported that people with a higher social comparison orientation appear to use social media more heavily than people with low social comparison orientation.[60]

Common Sense Media reported that children under age 13 in the United States use social networking services although many social media sites require users to be 13 or older.[61] In 2017, the firm conducted a survey of parents of children from birth to age 8 and reported that 4% of children at this age used social media sites such as Instagram, Snapchat, or (now-defunct) Musical.ly "often" or "sometimes".[62] Their 2019 survey surveyed Americans ages 8–16 and reported that about 31% of children ages 8–12 use social media.[63] In that survey, teens aged 16–18 were asked when they started using social media. the median age was 14, although 28% said they started to use it before reaching 13.

Usage: during the pandemic

edit

Usage by minors

edit

Social media played a role in communication during the COVID-19 pandemic.[64] In June 2020, a survey by Cartoon Network and the Cyberbullying Research Center surveyed Americans tweens (ages 9–12) and reported that the most popular application was YouTube (67%).[65] (as age increased, tweens were more likely to have used social media apps and games.) Similarly, Common Sense Media's 2020 survey of Americans ages 13–18 reported that YouTube was the most popular (used by 86% of 13- to 18-year-olds).[66] As children aged, they increasingly utilized social media services and often used YouTube to consume content.

Apps used by U.S. tweens (ages 9–12), 2019-2020[65]: 39–42 
Platform Overall Boys Girls 9-year-olds 12-year-olds
YouTube 67% 68% 66% 53.6% 74.6%
Minecraft 48% 61% 35% 43.6% 49.9%
Roblox 47% 44% 49% 41.2% 41.7%
Google Classroom 45% 48% 41% 39.6% 49.3%
Fortnite 31% 43% 20% 22.2% 38.9%
TikTok 30% 23% 30% 16.8% 37%
YouTube Kids 26% 24% 28% 32.7% 22.1%
Snapchat 16% 11% 21% 5.6% 22.3%
Facebook Messenger Kids 15% 12% 18% 19.1% 10.4%
Instagram 15% 12% 19% 3% 28.8%
Discord 8% 11% 5% 0.7% 14.4%
Facebook 8% 6% 9% 2.2% 15%
Twitch 5% 7% 2% 1.0% 9.9%
None of the above 5% 6% 5% 9.6% 3.3%
Social media platforms used by U.S. kids in 2020 (ages 13–18) and 2017 (ages 10–18)[66]
Platform 2020 2017
YouTube 86% 70%
Instagram 69% 60%
Snapchat 68% 59%
TikTok 47% N/A
Facebook 43% 63%
Twitter 28% 36%
Reddit 14% 6%
Another social networking service 2% 3%
Do not use social networking service 4% 6%

Reasons for use by adults

edit

While adults were using social media before the COVID-19 pandemic, more started using it to stay socially connected and to get pandemic updates.

"Social media have become popularly use to seek for medical information and have fascinated the general public to collect information regarding corona virus pandemics in various perspectives. During these days, people are forced to stay at home and the social media have connected and supported awareness and pandemic updates."[67]

Healthcare workers and systems became more aware of social media as a place people were getting health information:

"During the COVID-19 pandemic, social media use has accelerated to the point of becoming a ubiquitous part of modern healthcare systems."[68]

This also led to the spread of disinformation. On December 11, 2020, the CDC put out a "Call to Action: Managing the Infodemic".[69] Some healthcare organizations used hashtags as interventions and published articles on their Twitter data:[70]

"Promotion of the joint usage of #PedsICU and #COVID19 throughout the international pediatric critical care community in tweets relevant to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic and pediatric critical care."[70]

However others in the medical community were concerned about social media addiction, as it became an increasingly important context and therefore "source of social validation and reinforcement" and were unsure whether increased social media use was harmful.[71]

Use by organizations

edit

Government

edit

Governments may use social media to (for example):[72]

Law enforcement

edit

Social media has been used extensively in civil and criminal investigations.[74] It has also been used to search for missing persons.[75] Police departments often make use of official social media accounts to engage with the public, publicize police activity, and burnish law enforcement's image;[76][77] conversely, video footage of citizen-documented police brutality and other misconduct has sometimes been posted to social media.[77]

In the United States, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement identifies and track individuals via social media, and has apprehended some people via social media-based sting operations.[78] U.S. Customs and Border Protection (also known as CPB) and the United States Department of Homeland Security use social media data as influencing factors during the visa process, and monitor individuals after they have entered the country.[79] CPB officers have also been documented performing searches of electronics and social media behavior at the border, searching both citizens and non-citizens without first obtaining a warrant.[79]

Reputation management

edit

As social media gained momentum among the younger generations, governments began using it to improve their image, especially among the youth. In January 2021, Egyptian authorities were reported to be using Instagram influencers as part of its media ambassadors program. The program was designed to revamp Egypt's image and to counter the bad press Egypt had received because of the country's human rights record. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates participated in similar programs.[80] Similarly, Dubai has extensively relied on social media and influencers to promote tourism. However, Dubai laws have kept these influencers within limits to not offend the authorities, or to criticize the city, politics or religion. The content of these foreign influencers is controlled to make sure that nothing portrays Dubai in a negative light.[81]

Business

edit

Many businesses use social media for marketing, branding,[82] advertising, communication, sales promotions, informal employee-learning/organizational development, competitive analysis, recruiting, relationship management/loyalty programs,[27] and e-Commerce. Companies use social-media monitoring tools to monitor, track, and analyze conversations to aid in their marketing, sales and other programs. Tools range from free, basic applications to subscription-based, tools. Social media offers information on industry trends. Within the finance industry, companies use social media as a tool for analyzing market sentiment. These range from marketing financial products, market trends, and as a tool to identify insider trading.[83] To exploit these opportunities, businesses need guidelines for use on each platform.[3]

Business use of social media is complicated by the fact that the business does not fully control its social media presence. Instead, it makes its case by participating in the "conversation".[84] Business uses social media[85] on a customer-organizational level; and an intra-organizational level.

Social media can encourage entrepreneurship and innovation, by highlighting successes, and by easing access to resources that might not otherwise be readily available/known.[86]

Marketing

edit

Social media marketing can help promote a product or service and establish connections with customers. Social media marketing can be divided into paid media, earned media, and owned media.[87] Using paid social media firms run advertising on a social media platform. Earned social media appears when firms do something that impresses stakeholders and they spontaneously post content about it. Owned social media is the platform markets itself by creating/promoting content to its users.[88]

Primary uses are to create brand awareness, engage customers by conversation (e.g., customers provide feedback on the firm) and providing access to customer service.[89] Social media's peer-to-peer communication shifts power from the organization to consumers, since consumer content is widely visible and not controlled by the company.[90]

Social media personalities, often referred to as "influencers", are Internet celebrities who are sponsored by marketers to promote products and companies online. Research reports that these endorsements attract the attention of users who have not settled on which products/services to buy,[91] especially younger consumers.[92] The practice of harnessing influencers to market or promote a product or service to their following is commonly referred to as influencer marketing.

In 2013, the United Kingdom Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) began advising celebrities to make it clear whether they had been paid to recommend a product or service by using the hashtag #spon or #ad when endorsing. The US Federal Trade Commission issued similar guidelines.[93]

Social media platforms also enable targeting specific audiences with advertising. Users of social media can share, and comment on the advertisement, turning passive consumers into active promoters and even producers.[94] Targeting requires extra effort by advertisers to understand how to reach the right users.[3] Companies can use humor (such as shitposting) to poke fun at competitors.[95] Advertising can even inspire fanart which can engage new audiences.[96] Hashtags (such as #ejuice and #eliquid) are one way to target interested users.[97]

User content can trigger peer effects, increasing consumer interest even without influencer involvement. A 2012 study focused on this communication reported that communication among peers can affect purchase intentions: direct impact through encouraging conformity, and an indirect impact by increasing product engagement. This study claimed that peer communication about a product increased product engagement.[98]

Politics

edit

Social media have a range of uses in politics.[99] Politicians use social media to spread their messages and influence voters.[100]

Dounoucos et al. reported that Twitter use by candidates was unprecedented during the US 2016 election.[101][102] The public increased its reliance on social-media sites for political information.[101] In the European Union, social media amplified political messages.[103] Foreign-originated social-media campaigns attempt to influence political opinion in another country.[104][105]

Activism

edit

Social media was influential in the Arab Spring in 2011.[106][107][108][109] However, debate persists about the extent to which social media facilitated this.[110] Activists have used social media to report the abuse of human rights in Bahrain. They publicized the brutality of government authorities, who they claimed were detaining, torturing and threatening individuals. Conversely, Bahrain's government used social media to track and target activists. The government stripped citizenship from over 1,000 activists as punishment.[111]

Militant groups use social media as an organizing and recruiting tool.[112] Islamic State (also known as ISIS) used social media. In 2014, #AllEyesonISIS went viral on Arabic X.[113][114]

Propaganda

edit
State-sponsored Internet propaganda is Internet manipulation and propaganda that is sponsored by a state. States have used the Internet, particularly social media to influence elections, sow distrust in institutions, spread rumors, spread disinformation, typically using bots to create and spread contact. Propaganda is used internally to control populations, and externally to influence other societies.

Recruiting

edit

Social media use in hiring refers to the examination by employers of job applicants' (public) social media profiles as part of the hiring assessment. For example, the vast majority of Fortune 500 companies use social media as a tool to screen prospective employees and as a tool for talent acquisition.[115]

This practice raises ethical questions. Employers and recruiters note that they have access only to information that applicants choose to make public. Many Western-European countries restrict employer's use of social media in the workplace. States including Arkansas, California, Colorado, Illinois, Maryland, Michigan, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin protect applicants and employees from surrendering usernames and passwords for social media accounts.[citation needed] Use of social media as caused significant problems for some applicants who are active on social media. A 2013 survey of 17,000 young people in six countries found that one in ten people aged 16 to 34 claimed to have been rejected for a job because of social media activity.[116][117]

Social media services have been reported to affect deception in resumes. While these services do not affect deception frequency, it does increase deception about interests and hobbies.[citation needed]

Science

edit

Scientists use social media to share their scientific knowledge and research on platforms such as ResearchGate, LinkedIn, Facebook, X, and Academia.edu.[118] The most common platforms are X and blogs. The use of social media reportedly has improved the interaction between scientists, reporters, and the general public.[citation needed] Over 495,000 opinions were shared on X related to science between September 1, 2010, and August 31, 2011.[119] Science related blogs respond to and motivate public interest in learning, following, and discussing science. Posts can be written quickly and allow the reader to interact in real time with authors.[120] One study in the context of climate change reported that climate scientists and scientific institutions played a minimal role in online debate, exceeded by nongovernmental organizations.[121]

Academia

edit

Academicians use social media activity to assess academic publications,[122] to measure public sentiment,[123] identify influencer accounts,[124] or crowdsource ideas or solutions.[125] Social media such as Facebook, X are also combined to predict elections via sentiment analysis.[126] Additional social media (e.g. YouTube, Google Trends) can be combined to reach a wider segment of the voting population, minimise media-specific bias, and inexpensively estimate electoral predictions which are on average half of a percentage point off the real vote share.[127]

School admissions

edit

In some places, students have been forced to surrender their social media passwords to school administrators.[128] Few laws protect student's social media privacy. Organizations such as the ACLU call for more privacy protection. They urge students who are pressured to give up their account information to resist.[129]

Colleges and universities may access applicants' internet services including social media profiles as part of their admissions process. According to Kaplan, Inc, a corporation that provides higher education preparation, in 2012 27% of admissions officers used Google to learn more about an applicant, with 26% checking Facebook.[130] Students whose social media pages include questionable material may be disqualified from admission processes.

"One survey in July 2017, by the American Association of College Registrars and Admissions Officers, reported that 11 percent of respondents said they had refused to admit an applicant based on social media content. This includes 8 percent of public institutions, where the First Amendment applies. The survey reported that 30 percent of institutions acknowledged reviewing the personal social media accounts of applicants at least some of the time."[131]

Court cases

edit

Social media comments and images have been used in court cases including employment law, child custody/child support, and disability claims. After an Apple employee criticized his employer on Facebook, he was fired. When the former employee sued Apple for unfair dismissal, the court, after examining the employee's Facebook posts, reported in favor of Apple, stating that the posts breached Apple's policies.[132] After a couple broke up, the man posted song lyrics "that talked about fantasies of killing the rapper's ex-wife" and made threats. A court reported him guilty.[132][clarification needed] In a disability claims case, a woman who fell at work claimed that she was permanently injured; the employer used her social media posts to counter her claims.[132]

Courts do not always admit social media evidence, in part, because screenshots can be faked or tampered with.[133] Judges may consider emojis into account to assess statements made on social media; in one Michigan case where a person alleged that another person had defamed them in an online comment, the judge disagreed, noting that an emoji after the comment that indicated that it was a joke.[133] In a 2014 case in Ontario against a police officer regarding alleged assault of a protester during the G20 summit, the court rejected the Crown's application to use a digital photo of the protest that was anonymously posted online, because it included no metadata verifying its provenance.[133]

Use by individuals

edit

News source

edit

Social media as a news source is the use of online social media platforms rather than moreover traditional media platforms to obtain news. Just as television turned a nation of people who listened to media content into watchers of media content in the 1950s to the 1980s, the emergence of social media has created a nation of media content creators. Almost half of Americans use social media as a news source, according to the Pew Research Center.[134]

As a participatory platform that allows for user-generated content[135][136] and sharing content within one's own virtual network,[137][135] using social media as a news source allows users to engage with news in a variety of ways,[138] including:

Using social media as a news source has become an increasingly more popular way for old and young adults alike to obtain information. There are ways that social media positively affects the world of news and journalism but it is important to acknowledge that there are also ways in which social media has a negative effect on the news that people consume such as false news, biased news, and disturbing content.

A 2019 Pew Research Center poll reported that Americans are wary about the ways that social media sites share news and certain content.[139] This wariness of accuracy grew as awareness that social media sites could be exploited by bad actors who concoct false narratives and fake news.[140]

Social tool

edit

Social media are used to socialize with friends and family[141] pursue romance and flirt,[141] but not all social needs can be fulfilled by social media.[142] For example, a 2003 article reported that lonely individuals are more likely to use the Internet for emotional support than others.[143] A 2018 survey from Common Sense Media reported that 40% of American teens ages 13–17 thought that social media was "extremely" or "very" important for them to connect with their friends.[144] The same survey reported that 33% of teens said social media was extremely or very important to conduct meaningful conversations with close friends, and 23% of teens said social media was extremely or very important to document and share their lives.[144] A 2020 Gallup poll reported that 53% of adult social media users in the United States thought that social media was a very or moderately important way to keep in touch with people during the COVID-19 pandemic.[145]

In Alone Together Sherry Turkle considered how people confuse social media usage with authentic communication.[146] She claimed that people act differently online and are less concerned about hurting others' feelings. Some online encounters can cause stress and anxiety, due to the difficulty purging online posts, fear of getting hacked, or of universities and employers exploring social media pages. Turkle speculated that many people prefer texting to face-to-face communication, which can contribute to loneliness.[146] Surveys from 2019 reported evidence among teens in the United States[144] and Mexico.[147] Some researchers reported that exchanges that involved direct communication and reciprocal messages correlated with less loneliness.[148]

In social media "stalking" or "creeping" refers to looking at someone's "timeline, status updates, tweets, and online bios" to find information about them and their activities.[149] A sub-category of creeping is creeping ex-partners after a breakup.[150]

Catfishing (creating a false identity) allows bad actors to exploit the lonely.[151]

Invidious comparison

edit

Self-presentation theory proposes that people consciously manage their self-image or identity related information in social contexts.[152] One aspect of social media is the time invested in customizing a personal profile.[153] Some users segment their audiences based on the image they want to present, pseudonymity and use of multiple accounts on the same platform offer that opportunity.[154]

A 2016 study reported that teenage girls manipulate their self-presentation on social media to appear beautiful as viewed by their peers.[155] Teenage girls attempt to earn regard and acceptance (likes, comments, and shares). When this does not go well, self-confidence and self-satisfaction can decline.[155] A 2018 survey of American teens ages 13–17 by Common Sense Media reported that 45% said likes are at least somewhat important, and 26% at least somewhat agreed that they feel bad about themselves if nobody responds to their photos.[144] Some evidence suggests that perceived rejection may lead to emotional pain,[156] and some may resort to online bullying.[157] according to a 2016 study, users' reward circuits in their brains are more active when their photos are liked by more peers.[158]

A 2016 review concluded that social media can trigger a negative feedback loop of viewing and uploading photos, self-comparison, disappointment, and disordered body perception when social success is not achieved.[159] One 2016 study reported that Pinterest is directly associated with disordered dieting behavior.[160]

People portray themselves on social media in the most appealing way.[155] However, upon seeing one person's curated persona, other people may question why their own lives are not as exciting or fulfilling. One 2017 study reported that problematic social media use (i.e., feeling addicted to social media) was related to lower life satisfaction and self-esteem.[161] Studies have reported that social media comparisons can have dire effects on physical and mental health.[162][163] In one study, women reported that social media was the most influential source of their body image satisfaction; while men reported them as the second biggest factor.[164] While monitoring the lives of celebrities long predates social media, the ease and immediacy of direct comparisons of pictures and stories with one's own may increase their impact.

A 2021 study reported that 87% of women and 65% of men compared themselves to others on social media.[165]

Efforts to combat such negative effects focused promoting body positivity. In a related study, women aged 18–30 were reported posts that contained side-by-side images of women in the same clothes and setting, but one image was enhanced for Instagram, while the other was an unedited, "realistic" version. Women who participated in this experiment reported a decrease in body dissatisfaction.[166]

Health

edit

Adolescents

edit

Social media can offer a support system for adolescent health, because it allows them to mobilize around health issues that they deem relevant.[167] For example, in a clinical study among adolescent patients undergoing obesity treatment, participants' claimed that social media allowed them to access personalized weight-loss content as well as social support among other adolescents with obesity.[168][169]

While social media can provide health information, it typically has no mechanism for ensuring the quality of that information.[169] The National Eating Disorders Association reported a high correlation between weight loss content and disorderly eating among women who have been influenced by inaccurate content.[169][170] Health literacy offers skills to allow users to spot/avoid such content. Efforts by governments and public health organizations to advance health literacy reportedly achieved limited success.[171]

Social media such as pro-anorexia sites reportedly increase risk of harm by reinforcing damaging health-related behaviors through social media, especially among adolescents.[172][173][174]

Pandemic

edit

During the coronavirus pandemic, inaccurate information from all sides spread widely via social media.[175] Topics subject to distortion included treatments, avoiding infection, vaccination, and public policy. Simultaneously, governments and others influenced social media platforms to suppress both accurate and inaccurate information in support of public policy.[176] Heavier social media use was reportedly associated with more acceptance of conspiracy theories, leading to worse mental health[177] and less compliance with public health recommendations.[178]

Addiction

edit

Social media platforms can serve as a breeding ground for addiction-related behaviors, with studies report that excessive use can lead to addiction-like symptoms. These symptoms include compulsive checking, mood modification, and withdrawal when not using social media, which can result in decreased face-to-face social interactions and contribute to the deterioration of interpersonal relationships and a sense of loneliness.[179]

Cyberbullying

edit
Cyberbullying (cyberharassment or online bullying) is a form of bullying or harassment using electronic means. It has become increasingly common, especially among teenagers and adolescents, due to young people's increased use of social media.[180] Related issues include online harassment and trolling. In 2015, according to cyberbullying statistics from the i–Safe Foundation, over half of adolescents and teens had been bullied online, and about the same number had engaged in cyberbullying.[181] Both the bully and the victim are negatively affected, and the intensity, duration, and frequency of bullying are three aspects that increase the negative effects on both of them.[182]

Sleep disturbance

edit

A 2017 study reported on a link between sleep disturbance and the use of social media. It concluded that blue light from computer/phone displays—and the frequency rather than the duration of time spent, predicted disturbed sleep, termed "obsessive 'checking'".[183] The association between social media use and sleep disturbance has clinical ramifications for young adults.[184] A recent study reported that people in the highest quartile for weekly social media use experienced the most sleep disturbance. The median number of minutes of social media use per day was 61. Females were more likely to experience high levels of sleep disturbance.[185] Many teenagers suffer from sleep deprivation from long hours at night on their phones, and this left them tired and unfocused in school.[186] A 2011 study reported that time spent on Facebook was negatively associated with GPA, but the association with sleep disturbance was not established.[187]

Emotional effects

edit

One studied effect of social media is 'Facebook depression', which affects adolescents who spend too much time on social media.[8] This may lead to reclusiveness, which can increase loneliness and low self-esteem.[8] Social media curates content to encourage users to keep scrolling.[184] Studies report children's self-esteem is positively affected by positive comments and negatively affected by negative or lack of comments. This affected self-perception.[188] A 2017 study of almost 6,000 adolescent students reported that those who self-reported addiction-like symptoms of social media use were more likely to report low self-esteem and high levels of depressive symptoms.[189]

A second emotional effect is social media burnout, defined as ambivalence, emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization. Ambivalence is confusion about the benefits from using social media. Emotional exhaustion is stress from using social media. Depersonalization is emotional detachment from social media. The three burnout factors negatively influence the likelihood of continuing on social media.[190]

A third emotional effect is "fear of missing out" (FOMO), which is the "pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent."[191] It is associated with increased scrutiny of friends on social media.[191]

Social media can also offer support as Twitter has done for the medical community.[192] X facilitated academic discussion among health professionals and students, while providing a supportive community for these individuals by and allowing members to support each other through likes, comments, and posts.[193] Access to social media offered a way to keep older adults connected, after the deaths of partners and geographical distance between friends and loved ones.[194]

Researchers study Social media and suicide to find if a correlation exists between the two. Some research has shown that there may be a correlation.

Social impacts

edit

Some commentators refer to social media as 'anti-social media' when describing its social impact.[195][196]

Disparity

edit

The digital divide is the unequal access to digital technology, including smartphones, tablets, laptops, and the internet.[197][198] The digital divide worsens inequality around access to information and resources. In the Information Age, people without access to the Internet and other technology are at a disadvantage, for they are unable or less able to connect with others, find and apply for jobs, shop, and learn.[197][199]

People who are homeless, living in poverty, elderly people, and those living in rural communities may have limited access to the Internet; in contrast, urban middle class and upper-class people have easy access to the Internet. Another divide is between producers and consumers of Internet content,[200][201] which could be a result of educational disparities.[202] While social media use varies across age groups, a US 2010 study reported no racial divide.[203]

Political polarization

edit

Many critics point to studies showing social media algorithms elevate more partisan and inflammatory content.[204][205] Because of recommendation algorithms that filter and display news content that matches users' political preferences, one potential impact is an increase in political polarization due to selective exposure. Political polarization is the divergence of political attitudes towards ideological extremes. Selective exposure occurs when an individual favors information that supports their beliefs and avoids information that conflicts with them.[206] Jonathan Haidt compared the impact of social media to the Tower of Babel and the chaos it unleashed as a result.[207][208]

Aviv Ovadya argues that these algorithms incentivize the creation of divisive content in addition to promoting existing divisive content,[209] but could be designed to reduce polarization instead.[210] In 2017, Facebook gave its new emoji reactions five times the weight in its algorithms as its like button, which data scientists at the company in 2019 confirmed had disproportionately boosted toxicity, misinformation and low-quality news.[211] Some popular ideas for how to combat selective exposure have had no or opposite impacts.[212][213][209] Some advocate for media literacy as a solution.[214] Others argue that less social media,[206] or more local journalism[215][216][217] could help address political polarization.

Stereotyping

edit

A 2018 study reported that social media increases the power of stereotypes.[218] Stereotypes can have both negative and positive connotations. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, youth were accused of responsibility for spreading the disease.[219] Elderly people get stereotyped as lacking knowledge of proper behavior on social media.[220]

Communication

edit

Social media allows for mass cultural exchange and intercultural communication, despite different ways of communicating in various cultures.[221]

Social media has affected the way youth communicate, by introducing new forms of language.[222] Novel acronyms save time, as illustrated by "LOL", which is the ubiquitous shortcut for "laugh out loud".

The hashtag was created to simplify searching for information and to allow users to highlight topics of interest in the hope of attracting the attention of others. Hashtags can be used to advocate for a movement, mark content for future use, and allow other users to contribute to a discussion.[223]

For some young people, social media and texting have largely replaced in person communications, made worse by pandemic isolation, delaying the development of conversation and other social skills.[224]

What is socially acceptable is now heavily based on social media.[225] The American Academy of Pediatrics reported that bullying, the making of non-inclusive friend groups, and sexual experimentation have increased cyberbullying, privacy issues, and sending sexual images or messages. Sexting and revenge porn became rampant, particularly among minors, with legal implications and resulting trauma risk.[226][227][228][229] However, adolescents can learn basic social and technical skills online.[230] Social media, can strengthen relationships just by keeping in touch, making more friends, and engaging in community activities.[8]

Regulation by government authorities

edit

Situation by geographical region

edit

Australia

edit

In July 2014, in response to WikiLeaks' release of a secret suppression order made by the Victorian Supreme Court, media lawyers were quoted in the Australian media to the effect that "anyone who tweets a link to the WikiLeaks report, posts it on Facebook, or shares it in any way online could also face charges".[231]

Egypt

edit

On 27 July 2020, in Egypt, two women were sentenced to two years of imprisonment for posting TikTok videos, which the government claimed as "violating family values".[232]

Thailand

edit

In the 2014 Thai coup d'état, the public was explicitly instructed not to 'share' or 'like' dissenting views on social media or face prison.[citation needed]

United States

edit

Historically, platforms were responsible for moderating the content that they presented. They set rules for what was allowable, decided which content to promote and which to ignore. The US enacted the Communications Decency Act in 1996. Section 230 of that act exempted internet platforms from legal liability for content authored by third parties.

No provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider." (47 U.S.C. § 230(c)(1)).

— US Congress, Communications Decency Act Section 230

In 2024, legislation was enacted in Florida requiring social media companies to verify the age of people with accounts, and to prohibit holding an account for people aged under 14, and between 14 and 16 in the absence of parental approval.[233][234]

European Union

edit

The European Union initially took a similar approach.[235] However, in 2020, the European Commission presented two legislative proposals: The Digital Services Act (DSA) and the Digital Markets Act (DMA). Both proposals were enacted in July 2022. The DSA entered into force on 17 February 2024, the DMA in March 2024.[236] This legislation can be summarized in the following four objectives, articulated by MEPs:

  • "What is illegal offline must also be illegal online".[237]
  • "Very large online platforms" must therefore, among other things
    • delete illegal content (propaganda, election interference, hate crimes and online harms such as harassment and child abuse) and better protect fundamental rights
    • redesign their systems to ensure a "high level of privacy, security and protection of minors", by prohibiting advertising based on personal data, designing recommender systems to minimize risks for children and demonstrating this to the European Commission via a risk assessment, and
    • not use sensitive personal data such as race, gender and religion to target advertising.[238]

Violators could face a complete ban in Europe or fines of up to 6% of global sales. Such content moderation requires extensive investment by platform providers.[239] Enforcement resources may not be sufficient to ensure compliance.[240]

The DSA allows a country to require information to be deleted that is illegal only in that jurisdiction. According to Patrick Breyer from the German Pirate Party, a problem could arise from the Hungarian government requesting a video to be deleted that is critical of Victor Orban, as he foresaw the potential for such determinations to be applied EU-wide.[241]

Discussions and proposals

edit

2018 Nobel Laureate Paul Romer[242] advocated taxing negative externalities of social media platforms.[239] Similar to a carbon tax – negative social effects could be compensated for by a financial levy on the platforms.[243] Assuming that the tax did not deter the actions that produced the externalities, the revenue raised could be used to address them. However, consensus has yet to emerge on how to measure or mitigate the harms, nor to craft a tax, .

Another proposal is to invoke competition law.[244] The idea is to restrict the platforms' market power by controlling mergers ex ante and tightening the law. This would be achieved through a supranational enforcement mechanism and the deterrent effect of high fines.

In a 2024 opinion piece, Megan Moreno and Jenny Radesky, professors of pediatrics, wrote about the need for "nuanced" policy.[245] They regarded access which is contingent upon parental consent as harmful. They commented that a focus on increasing age restrictions "may serve to distract from making sure platforms are following guidelines and best practices for all ages".[246]

In June 2024, US Surgeon General Vivek Murthy called for social media platforms to contain a warning about the impact they have on the mental health of young people.[247]

Business models

edit

The business model of most social media platforms is based on selling slots to advertisers. Platforms provide access to data about each user, which allows them to deliver adds that are individually relevant to them. This strongly incents platforms to arrange their content so that users view as much content as possible, increasing the number of ads that they see. Platforms such as X add paid user subscriptions in part to reduce their dependence on advertising revenues.[248]

Criticism, debate and controversy

edit

The enormous reach and impact of social media has naturally led to a stream of criticism, debate, and controversy. Criticisms include platform capabilities, content moderation and reliability,[249] impact on concentration, mental health,[250] content ownership, and the meaning of interactions, and poor cross-platform interoperability,[251] decrease in face-to-face interactions, cyberbullying, sexual predation, particularly of children, and child pornography.[252][253]

In 2007 Andrew Keen wrote, "Out of this anarchy, it suddenly became clear that what was governing the infinite monkeys now inputting away on the Internet was the law of digital Darwinism, the survival of the loudest and most opinionated. Under these rules, the only way to intellectually prevail is by infinite filibustering."[254]

Trustworthiness and reliability

edit

Social media has become a regular source of news and information. A 2021 Pew Research Center poll reported roughly 70% of users regularly get news from social media,[4] despite the presence of fake news and misinformation. Platforms typically do not take responsibility for content accuracy, and many do not vet content at all, although in some cases, content the platform finds problematic is deleted or access to it is reduced.[255][256][257] Content distribution algorithms otherwise typically ignore substance, responding instead to the contents' virality.

In 2018, researchers reported that fake news spread almost 70% faster than truthful news on X.[7] Social media bots on social media increase the reach of both true and false content and if wielded by bad actors misinformation can reach many more users.[10] Some platforms attempt to discover and block bots, with limited success.[11] Fake news seems to receive more user engagement, possibly because it is relatively novel, engaging users' curiosity and increasing spread.[23] Fake news often propagates in the immediate aftermath of an event, before conventional media are prepared to publish.[20][16]

Data harvesting and data mining

edit

Social media mining is the process of obtaining data from user-generated content on social media in order to extract actionable patterns, form conclusions about users, and act upon the information. Mining supports targeting advertising to users or academic research. The term is an analogy to the process of mining for minerals. Mining companies sift through raw ore to find the valuable minerals; likewise, social media mining sifts through social media data in order to discern patterns and trends about matters such as social media usage, online behaviour, content sharing, connections between individuals, buying behaviour. These patterns and trends are of interest to companies, governments and not-for-profit organizations, as such organizations can use the analyses for tasks such as design strategies, introduce programs, products, processes or services.

Social media mining uses concepts from computer science, data mining, machine learning, and statistics. Mining is based on social network analysis, network science, sociology, ethnography, optimization and mathematics. It attempts to formally represent, measure and model patterns from social media data.[258] In the 2010s, major corporations, governments and not-for-profit organizations began mining to learn about customers, clients and others.

Platforms such as Google, Facebook (partnered with Datalogix and BlueKai) conduct mining to target users with advertising.[259] Scientists and machine learning researchers extract insights and design product features.[260]

Users may not understand how platforms use their data.[261] Users tend to click through Terms of Use agreements without reading them, leading to ethical questions about whether platforms adequately protect users' privacy.

During the 2016 United States presidential election, Facebook allowed Cambridge Analytica, a political consulting firm linked to the Trump campaign, to analyze the data of an estimated 87 million Facebook users to profile voters, creating controversy when this was revealed.[262]

Critique of activism

edit

Malcolm Gladwell considers the role of social media in revolutions and protests to be overstated. He concluded that while social media makes it easier for activists to express themselves, that expression likely has no impact beyond social media. What he called "high-risk activism" involves strong relationships, coordination, commitment, high risks, and sacrifice.[263] Gladwell claimed that social media are built around weak ties and argues that "social networks are effective at increasing participation—by lessening the level of motivation that participation requires."[263] According to him, "Facebook activism succeeds not by motivating people to make a real sacrifice, but by motivating them to do the things that people do when they are not motivated enough to make a real sacrifice."[263]

Disputing Gladwell's theory, a 2018 survey reported that people who are politically expressive on social media are more likely to participate in offline political activity.[264]

Content ownership

edit

Social media content is generated by users. However, content ownership is defined by the Terms of Service to which users agree. Platforms control access to the content, and may make it available to third parties.[265]

 
Different social media platforms.

Although platform's terms differ, generally they all give permission to utilize users' copyrighted works at the platform's discretion.[266]

After its acquisition by Facebook in 2012, Instagram revealed it intended to use content in ads without seeking permission from or paying its users.[267][268] It then reversed these changes, with then-CEO Kevin Systrom promising to update the terms of service.[269][270]

Privacy

edit

Privacy rights advocates warn users about the collection of their personal data. Information is captured without the user's knowing consent. Data may be applied to law enforcement or other governmental purposes.[271][265] Information may be offered for third party use.

Young people are prone to sharing personal information that can attract predators.[272]

While social media users claim to want to keep their data private, their behavior does not reflect that concern, as many users expose significant personal data on their profiles.

In addition, platforms collect data on user behaviors that are not part of their personal profiles. This data is made available to third parties for purposes that include targeted advertising.[273]

A 2014 Pew Research Center survey reported that 91% of Americans "agree" or "strongly agree" that people have lost control over how personal information is collected and used. Some 80% of social media users said they were concerned about advertisers and businesses accessing the data they share on social media platforms, and 64% said the government should do more to regulate advertisers.[274] In 2019, UK legislators criticized Facebook for not protecting certain aspects of user data.[275]

In 2019 the Pentagon issued guidance to the military, Coast Guard and other government agencies that identified "the potential risk associated with using the TikTok app and directs appropriate action for employees to take in order to safeguard their personal information."[276] As a result, the military, Coast Guard, Transportation Security Administration, and Department of Homeland Security banned the installation and use of TikTok on government devices.[277]

In 2020 The US government attempted to ban TikTok and WeChat from the States over national security concerns. However, a federal court blocked the move.[278] In 2024, the US Congress passed a low directing TikTok's parent company ByteDance to divest the service or see the service banned from operating in the US. The company sued, challenging the constitutionality of the ban.[279]

Addiction

edit

Internet addiction "disorder" (IAD), also known as problematic internet use or pathological internet use, is a problematic compulsive use of the internet, particularly on social media, that impairs an individual's function over a prolonged period of time. Young people are at particular risk of developing internet addiction disorder,[280] with case studies highlighting students whose academic performance declines as they spend more time online.[281] Some experience health consequences from loss of sleep[282] as they stay up to continue scrolling, chatting, and gaming.[283]

Excessive Internet use is not recognized as a disorder by the World Health Organization, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11).[284] However, gaming disorder appears in the ICD-11.[285] Controversy around the diagnosis includes whether the disorder is a separate clinical entity, or a manifestation of underlying psychiatric disorders. Definitions are not standardized or agreed upon, complicating the development of evidence-based recommendations.

Users under 30 access the Internet more than other age groups and experience a higher risk of overuse.[286]

In 2011 the term "Facebook addiction disorder" (FAD) emerged.[287] FAD is characterized by compulsive use of Facebook. A 2017 study investigated a correlation between excessive use and narcissism, reporting "FAD was significantly positively related to the personality trait narcissism and to negative mental health variables (depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms)".[288][289]

In 2020, the documentary The Social Dilemma, reported concerns of mental health experts and former employees of social media companies over social media's pursuit of addictive use. For example, when a user has not visited Facebook for some time, the platform varies its notifications, attempting to lure them back. It also raises concerns about the correlation between social media use and child and teen suicidality.[290]

Turning off social media notifications may help reduce social media use.[291] For some users, changes in web browsing can be helpful in compensating for self-regulatory problems. For instance, a study involving 157 online learners on massive open online courses examined the impact of such an intervention. The study reported that providing support in self-regulation was associated with a reduction in time spent online, particularly on entertainment.[292]

Debate over use by young people

edit

Whether to restrict the use of phones and social media among young people has been debated since smartphones became ubiquitous.[293] A study of Americans aged 12–15, reported that teenagers who used social media over three hours/day doubled their risk of negative mental health outcomes, including depression and anxiety.[294] Platforms have not tuned their algorithms to prevent young people from viewing inappropriate content. A 2023 study of Australian youth reported that 57% had seen disturbingly violent content, while nearly half had regular exposure to sexual images.[295] Further, youth are prone to misuse social media for cyberbullying.[citation needed]

As result, phones have been banned from some schools, and some schools in the US have blocked social media websites.[296]

Censorship

edit

Social media often features in political struggles. In some countries, Internet police or secret police monitor or control citizens' use of social media. For example, in 2013 some social media was banned in Turkey after the Taksim Gezi Park protests. Both X and YouTube were temporarily suspended in the country by a court's decision. A law granted immunity to Telecommunications Directorate (TİB) personnel. The TİB was also given the authority to block access to specific websites without a court order.[297] Yet TİB's 2014 blocking of X was ruled by the constitutional court to violate free speech.[298]

United States

edit

Internet censorship in the United States is the suppression of information published or viewed on the Internet in the United States. The First Amendment of the United States Constitution protects freedom of speech and expression against federal, state, and local government censorship.

Free speech protections allow little government-mandated Internet content restrictions. However, the Internet is highly regulated, supported by a complex set of legally binding and privately mediated mechanisms.[299]

Gambling, cyber security, and the dangers to children who frequent social media are important ongoing debates. Significant public resistance to proposed content restriction policies has prevented measures used in some other countries from taking hold in the US[299]

Many government-mandated attempts to regulate content have been barred, often after lengthy legal battles.[300] However, the government has exerted pressure indirectly. With the exception of child pornography, content restrictions tend to rely on platforms to remove/suppress content, following state encouragement or the threat of legal action.[301][299]

Intellectual property protections yielded a system that predictably removes infringing materials.[299][302] The US also seizes domains and computers, at times without notification.[303][304][305][306]

Decentralization and open standards

edit

While the dominant social media platforms are not interoperable, open source protocols such as ActivityPub have been adopted by platforms such as Mastodon, GNU social, Diaspora, and Friendica. They operate as a loose federation of mostly volunteer-operated servers, called the Fediverse. However, in 2019, Mastodon blocked Gab from connecting to it, claiming that it spread violent, right-wing extremism.[307]

In December 2019, X CEO Jack Dorsey advocated an "open and decentralized standard for social media". He joined Bluesky to bring it to reality.[308]

Deplatforming

edit

Deplatforming, also called no-platforming, is a form of Internet censorship of an individual or group by preventing them from posting on the platforms they use to share their information/ideas. This typically involves suspension, outright bans, or reducing spread (shadow banning).[309][310]

As early as 2015, platforms such as Reddit began to enforce selective bans based, for example, on terms of service that prohibit "hate speech".[311] The most notorious examples of deplatforming were Twitter's ban of then-US President Donald Trump shortly after and the New York Post during the 2020 presidential election.[312]

Threat to democracy

edit

A number of commentators and experts have argued that social media companies have incentives that to maximize user engagement with sensational, emotive and controversial material that discourages a healthy discourse that democracies depend on.[313] Zack Beauchamp of Vox calls it an authoritarian medium because of how it is incentivized to stir up hate and division that benefits aspiring autocrats.[314] The Economist describes social media as vulnerable to manipulation by autocrats.[315] Informed dialogue, a shared sense of reality, mutual consent and participation can all suffer due to the business model of social media.[316] Political polarization can be one byproduct.[317][318][319] This has implications for the likelihood of political violence.[320][206] Siva Vaidhyanathan argues for a range of solutions including privacy protections and enforcing anti-trust laws.[195] Andrew Leonard describes Pol.is as one possible solution to the divisiveness of traditional discourse on social media that has damaged democracies, citing the use of its algorithm to instead prioritize finding consensus.[321][322]

Extremist groups

edit

According to LikeWar: The Weaponization of Social Media,[323] the use of effective social media marketing techniques includes not only celebrities, corporations, and governments, but also extremist groups.[324] The use of social media by ISIS and Al-Qaeda has been used to influence public opinion where it operates and gain the attention of sympathizers. Social media platforms and encrypted-messaging applications have been used to recruit members, both locally and internationally.[325] Platforms have endured backlash for allowing this content. Extreme nationalist groups, and more prominently, US right-wing extremists have used similar online tactics. As many traditional social media platforms banned hate speech, several platforms became popular among right-wing extremists to carry out planning and communication including of events; these application became known as "Alt-tech". Platforms such as Telegram, Parler, and Gab were used during the January 6 United States Capitol attack, to coordinate attacks.[326] Members shared tips on how to avoid law enforcement and their plans on carrying out their objectives; some users called for killing law enforcement officers and politicians.[327]

Deceased users

edit

Social media content, persists unless the user deletes it. After a user dies, unless the platform is notified, their content remains.[328] Each platform has created guidelines for this situation.[329] In most cases on social media, the platforms require a next-of-kin to prove that the user is deceased, and give them the option of closing the account or maintaining it in a 'legacy' status.

Guidelines for users who have died, by platform[329]
Platform Guideline
X[330] The company works with an immediate family member to deactivate the account. Additionally, X will not give the account to any other person, regardless of the relationship.
Facebook Users have the option of having their account permanently deleted after death. Users can identify a 'legacy contact' who would take over the account after.
Instagram[331] Users can have the account memorialized or deleted with proof of death.
LinkedIn[332] A family member can request that the account be deleted. The family member must identify the account, submit proof of relationship, the user's email address, date of death, a link to the obituary, and the name of the last company the deceased worked for.
Pinterest Must email the company with the URL of the account along with a death certificate or a link to the obituary, as well as proof of relationship to the deceased.
YouTube[333] A representative can close the account, transfer payments from the account to an immediate family member and legal representative of the user's estate, and can provide the data in the account to a family member. All three capabilities require the requestor's government-issued ID or driver's license, the decedent's death certificate, and additional supporting documentation.
WeChat The heir must supply the user's death certificate, authentication of family relationship. The successor can then obtain the assets.

See also

edit

facilitates the building of relations

References

edit
  1. ^ a b Kietzmann, Jan H.; Hermkens, Kristopher (2011). "Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media". Business Horizons (Submitted manuscript). 54 (3): 241–251. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2011.01.005. S2CID 51682132.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Obar, Jonathan A.; Wildman, Steve (2015). "Social media definition and the governance challenge: An introduction to the special issue". Telecommunications Policy. 39 (9): 745–750. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2647377. ISSN 1556-5068. SSRN 2647377.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Kaplan, Andreas M.; Haenlein, Michael (2010). "Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media". Business Horizons. 53 (1). Bloomington, Indiana: Kelley School of Business: 61, 64–65, 67. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2009.09.003. S2CID 16741539. Retrieved 28 April 2019. Social Media is a very active and fast-moving domain. What may be up-to-date today could have disappeared from the virtual landscape tomorrow. It is therefore crucial for firms to have a set of guidelines that can be applied to any form of Social Media [...].
  4. ^ a b Fuchs, Christian (2017). Social media: a critical introduction (2nd ed.). Los Angeles London New Delhi Singapore Washington DC Melbourne: SAGE. ISBN 978-1-4739-6683-3.
  5. ^ a b c d e f Boyd, Danah M.; Ellison, Nicole B. (2007). "Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship". Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 13 (1): 210–30. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393.x.
  6. ^ a b Dijck, Jose van (2 January 2013). The Culture of Connectivity: A Critical History of Social Media. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-997079-7.
  7. ^ a b Schivinski, Bruno; Brzozowska-Woś, Magdalena; Stansbury, Ellena; Satel, Jason; Montag, Christian; Pontes, Halley M. (2020). "Exploring the Role of Social Media Use Motives, Psychological Well-Being, Self-Esteem, and Affect in Problematic Social Media Use". Frontiers in Psychology. 11: 3576. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.617140. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 7772182. PMID 33391137.
  8. ^ a b c d e Schurgin O'Keeffe, Gwenn; Clarke-Pearson, Kathleen (2011). "The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families". Pediatrics. 127 (4): 800–804. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-0054. PMID 21444588. S2CID 56801712.
  9. ^ Agichtein, Eugene; Castillo, Carlos; Donato, Debora; Gionis, Aristides; Mishne, Gilad (2008). "Finding high-quality content in social media" (PDF). WISDOM – Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining: 183–193. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 May 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
  10. ^ a b Tao, Xiaohui; Huang, Wei; Mu, Xiangming; Xie, Haoran (18 November 2016). "Special issue on knowledge management of web social media". Web Intelligence. 14 (4): 273–274. doi:10.3233/WEB-160343 – via Lingnan scholars.
  11. ^ a b Pavlik, John; MacIntoch, Shawn (2015). Converging Media 4th Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-19-934230-3.
  12. ^ "How Social Media Affects Your Teen's Mental Health: A Parent's Guide". Yale Medicine. Retrieved 24 May 2024.
  13. ^ "Social Media and Teen Mental Health". The Annie E. Casey Foundation. 10 August 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2024.
  14. ^ Stacy, Christopher C. (7 September 1982). "Getting Started Computing at the AI Lab" (PDF). MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2019.
  15. ^ Cerf, Vinton; Dalal, Yogen; Sunshine, Carl (1974). "Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program". RFC: 675. doi:10.17487/RFC0675. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  16. ^ a b Edwards, Benj (4 November 2016). "The Lost Civilization of Dial-Up Bulletin Board Systems". The Atlantic. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
  17. ^ "CMOS Sensors Enable Phone Cameras, HD Video". NASA Spinoff. NASA. 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
  18. ^ a b Ngak, Chenda (6 July 2011). "Then and now: a history of social networking sites". CBS news. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
  19. ^ Kirkpatrick, David (2011). The Facebook effect: the real inside story of Mark Zuckerberg and the world's fastest-growing company. London: Virgin.
  20. ^ a b "A Brief History of Social Media & timeline - 1973 to 2021". Dewzilla. 11 February 2020. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  21. ^ "Social media". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
  22. ^ Nielsen Company (15 June 2010). "Social Networks Blogs Now Account for One in Every Four and a Half Minutes Online". Nielsen. Archived from the original on 6 May 2022. Retrieved 30 April 2015.
  23. ^ a b Sterling, Greg (4 April 2016). "Nearly 80 percent of social media time now spent on mobile devices". Marketing Land. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  24. ^ "Global Social Media Statistics". DataReportal – Global Digital Insights. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  25. ^ "social media". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  26. ^ Aichner, Thomas; Jacob, Frank H. (March 2015). "Measuring the Degree of Corporate Social Media Use". International Journal of Market Research. 57 (2): 257–275. doi:10.2501/IJMR-2015-018. S2CID 166531788.
  27. ^ a b Kaplan, Andreas M. (March–April 2012). "If you love something, let it go mobile: Mobile marketing and mobile social media 4x4". Business Horizons. 55 (2): 129–139. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2011.10.009.
  28. ^ Ghosh, Rumi (June 2011). "Entropy-based Classification of 'Retweeting' Activity on Twitter". arXiv:1106.0346 [cs.SI].
  29. ^ "bots". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 11 May 2017.
  30. ^ "DemTech | Industrialized Disinformation: 2020 Global Inventory of Organized Social Media Manipulation". demtech.oii.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
  31. ^ Martinez Rodrigo, Salto; Jacques-García, Fausto Abraham (2012). "Development and Implementation of a Chat Bot in a Social Network". 2012 Ninth International Conference on Information Technology - New Generations. pp. 751–755. doi:10.1109/ITNG.2012.147. ISBN 978-1-4673-0798-7. S2CID 207008003.
  32. ^ Castronovo, Cristina; Huang, Lei (2012). "Social Media in Alternative Marketing Communication Model". Journal of Marketing Development & Competitivness. 6: 117–136.
  33. ^ Baym, Nancy K. (7 October 2013). "Data Not Seen: The uses and shortcomings of social media metrics". First Monday. 18 (10). doi:10.5210/fm.v18i10.4873.
  34. ^ "Terms of Use". help.instagram.com. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  35. ^ a b c Chu, Z.; Gianvecchio, S.; Wang, H.; Jajodia, S. (2012). "Detecting automation of Twitter accounts: Are you a human, bot, or cyborg?". IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing. 9 (6): 811–824. doi:10.1109/tdsc.2012.75. S2CID 351844.
  36. ^ Stone-Gross, B.; Holz, T.; Stringhini, G.; Vigna, G. (2011). "The Underground Economy of Spam: A Botmaster's Perspective of Coordinating Large-Scale Spam Campaigns" (PDF). LEET. 11: 4.
  37. ^ House, Arthur. "The real cyborgs - in-depth feature about people merging with machines". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2 March 2022 – via s.telegraph.co.uk.
  38. ^ Schreckinger, Ben (30 September 2016). "Inside Trump's 'cyborg' Twitter army". Politico. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  39. ^ Pilon, Annie (11 March 2021). "50 Social Media Management Tools for your Business". Small Business Trends. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  40. ^ "USPTO search on published patent applications mentioning "social media"". Appft.uspto.gov. Archived from the original on 15 September 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
  41. ^ "USPTO search on issued patents mentioning "social media"". Patft.uspto.gov. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
  42. ^ Cashmore, Pete (25 May 2007). "Facebook Video Launches: YouTube Beware!". Mashable. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
  43. ^ "Introducing Video on Instagram". Instagram. 20 June 2013.
  44. ^ Livesay, Kari (13 April 2022). "Instagram Video Length Guide (An Easy Cheat Sheet)". Animoto. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  45. ^ Alexander, Julia (29 November 2018). "YouTube is rolling out its Instagram-like Stories feature to more creators". The Verge.
  46. ^ Parr, Ben (10 August 2011). "Twitter Rolls Out Photo Sharing to All Users". Mashable.
  47. ^ Kamdar, Jinen (27 January 2015). "Now on Twitter: group Direct Messages and mobile video camera". Twitter.
  48. ^ Rishel, Jeremy (21 June 2016). "New ways to tap into video on Twitter". Twitter. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  49. ^ Hutchinson, Andrew (15 March 2017). "Twitter Updates Media Studio, Expands Access to All Users". Social Media Today. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  50. ^ "r/announcements - Image Hosting on Reddit". reddit. 21 June 2016. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  51. ^ "r/changelog - [Reddit change] Introducing video uploading beta". reddit. 26 June 2017. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  52. ^ "Introducing Reddit Image Galleries". Upvoted. 15 July 2020. Archived from the original on 16 July 2020.
  53. ^ Liao, Shannon (29 May 2018). "Imgur adds 30-second video uploads so your GIFs can have soundtracks". The Verge.
  54. ^ "How to Upload Video". Imgur. Archived from the original on 13 June 2019.
  55. ^ TeamYouTube [@TeamYouTube] (11 December 2018). "New on the Community tab: Post Playlists to engage with your audience! If you have Community posts enabled on your channel, learn more about Playlist posts here → https://t.co/mE5tl7nR6E https://t.co/BR0ijr0xEq" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 5 January 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2021 – via Twitter.
  56. ^ "Number of global social network users 2017-2025| Statista". Statista. Archived from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  57. ^ "Most popular social networks worldwide as of January 2022, ranked by number of monthly active users (in millions)". Statista. Archived from the original on 29 January 2022.
  58. ^ "Biggest social media platforms 2024". Statista. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
  59. ^ Correa, Teresa; Hinsley, Amber W. (October 2009). "Who Interacts on the Web?: The Intersection of Users' Personality and Social Media Use". Computers in Human Behavior. 26 (2): 247–253. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.09.003. S2CID 3748842.
  60. ^ Vogel, Erin A.; Rose, Jason P.; Okdie, Bradley M.; Eckles, Katheryn; Franz, Brittany (2015). "Who compares and despairs? The effect of social comparison orientation on social media use and its outcomes". Personality and Individual Differences. 86: 249–56. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.026. S2CID 37514412.
  61. ^ Jargon, Julie (19 June 2019). "How 13 Became the Internet's Age of Adulthood". The Wall Street Journal.
  62. ^ Rideout, Vicky (19 October 2017). "The Common Sense census: Media use by kids age zero to eight, 2017". Common Sense Media. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  63. ^ Rideout, Vicky; Robb, Michael B. (2019). "The Common Sense census: Media use by tweens and teens, 2019". Common Sense Media.
  64. ^ Saud, Muhammad; Mashud, Musta'in; Ida, Rachmah (15 September 2020). "Usage of social media during the pandemic: Seeking support and awareness about COVID-19 through social media platforms". Journal of Public Affairs: e02417. doi:10.1002/pa.2417. S2CID 224943667.
  65. ^ a b Patchin, Justin W.; Hinduja, Sameer (2020). "Tween cyberbullying in 2020". Cartoon Network. Archived from the original on 20 October 2020.
  66. ^ a b Robb, Michael B. (2020). "Teens and the news: The influencers, celebrities, and platforms they say matter most, 2020". Common Sense Media. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  67. ^ Saud, Muhammad; Mashud, Musta'in; Ida, Rachmah (2020). "Usage of social media during the pandemic: Seeking support and awareness about COVID-19 through social media platforms". Journal of Public Affairs. 20 (4): e2417. doi:10.1002/pa.2417. ISSN 1479-1854. S2CID 224943667.
  68. ^ Wong, Adrian; Ho, Serene; Olusanya, Olusegun; Antonini, Marta Velia; Lyness, David (1 August 2021). "The use of social media and online communications in times of pandemic COVID-19". Journal of the Intensive Care Society. 22 (3): 255–260. doi:10.1177/1751143720966280. ISSN 1751-1437. PMC 8373288. PMID 34422109.
  69. ^ "Call for Action: Managing the Infodemic". World Health Organization. 11 December 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
  70. ^ a b Kudchadkar, Sapna R.; Carroll, Christopher L. (August 2020). "Using Social Media for Rapid Information Dissemination in a Pandemic: #PedsICU and Coronavirus Disease 2019". Pediatric Critical Care Medicine. 21 (8): e538–e546. doi:10.1097/PCC.0000000000002474. ISSN 1529-7535. PMC 7255404. PMID 32459792.
  71. ^ Singh, Shweta; Dixit, Ayushi; Joshi, Gunjan (December 2020). "Is compulsive social media use amid COVID-19 pandemic addictive behavior or coping mechanism?". Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 54: 102290. doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102290. ISSN 1876-2018. PMC 7338858. PMID 32659658.
  72. ^ Khan, Gohar F. (2017). Social Media for Government: A Practical Guide to Understanding, Implementing, and Managing Social Media Tools in the Public Sphere. SpringerBriefs in Political Science. Singapore: Springer. ISBN 978-981-10-2942-4. Retrieved 28 April 2019.
  73. ^ Gesser-Edelsburg, Anat; Shir-Raz, Yaffa (2017). Risk Communication and Infectious Diseases in an Age of Digital Media. Routledge Studies in Public Health. ISBN 978-0-367-22405-9. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  74. ^ Brunty, Joshua; Helenek, Katherine (2014). Social Media Investigation for Law Enforcement. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-52165-5.
  75. ^ Colls, Caroline Sturdy (2016). Morewitz, Stephen J. (ed.). Handbook of Missing Persons. Springer International. pp. 97, 102, 164.
  76. ^ Perez, Kaitlyn (30 June 2017). "Social Media Has Become a Critical Part of Law Enforcement". National Police Foundation. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019.
  77. ^ a b Schneider, Christopher J. (2015). "Police "Image Work" in an Era of Social Media" YouTube and 2007 Montebello Summit Protests". Social Media, Politics and the StateProtests, Revolutions, Riots, Crime and Policing in the Age of Facebook, Twitter and YouTube. Routledge Research in Information Technology and Society. Routledge. pp. 229–30. ISBN 978-1-317-65548-0.
  78. ^ Funk, McKenzie (2 October 2019). "How ICE Picks Its Targets in the Surveillance Age". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
  79. ^ a b Patel, Faiza; Levinson-Waldman, Rachel; Koreh, Raya; DenUyl, Sophia (11 March 2020). Social Media Monitoring (Report). Brennan Center for Justice. pp. 255–57. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  80. ^ Michaelson, Ruth; Safi, Michael (29 January 2021). "Sugar-coated propaganda? Middle East taps into power of influencers". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
  81. ^ Michaelson, Ruth (17 April 2021). "'In this world, social media is everything': how Dubai became the planet's influencer capital". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  82. ^ Spillane, James (3 January 2013). "5 Indirect Ways Building Social Authority Improves Your Brand". Business 2 Community. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  83. ^ Lugmayr, Artur (2013). "Predicting the Future of Investor Sentiment with Social Media in Stock Exchange Investments: A Basic Framework for the DAX Performance Index". Handbook of Social Media Management. Vol. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 565–589. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-28897-5_33. ISBN 978-3-642-28896-8.
  84. ^ Rutledge, Pamela. "Research Survey". The Media Psychology Blog. Archived from the original on 4 May 2012. Retrieved 24 April 2012. One of the tenets of social media is that you can't control your message, you can only participate in the conversation.
  85. ^ Meske, Christian; Stieglitz, Stefan (15 January 2014). "Reflektion der wissenschaftlichen Nutzenbetrachtung von Social Software / Reflecting the Scientific Discussion of Benefits Induced by Social Software". I-com. 13 (3). doi:10.1515/icom.2014.0015. ISSN 2196-6826. S2CID 168104889.
  86. ^ Wang, Wei; Liang, Qiaozhuan; Mahto, Raj V.; Deng, Wei; Zhang, Stephen X. (2020). "Entrepreneurial entry: The role of social media". Technological Forecasting and Social Change. 161: 120337. doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120337. PMC 7522013. PMID 33012851.
  87. ^ Stephen, Andrew T.; Galak, Jeff (1 October 2012). "The Effects of Traditional and Social Earned Media on Sales: A Study of a Microlending Marketplace". Journal of Marketing Research. 49 (5): 624–639. doi:10.1509/jmr.09.0401. ISSN 0022-2437. S2CID 167535488.
  88. ^ Brenner, Michael (7 April 2022). "What Are Paid, Owned, and Earned Media, and Which One Drives More ROI?". Marketing Insider Group. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  89. ^ Chaffey, Dave; Ellis-Chadwick, Fiona (2012). Digital Marketing (5th ed.). Pearson. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-0-273-74610-2.
  90. ^ Sorescu, Alina; Frambach, Ruud T.; Singh, Jagdip; Rangaswamy, Arvind; Bridges, Cheryl (July 2011). "Innovations in Retail Business Models". Journal of Retailing. 87: S3–S16. doi:10.1016/j.jretai.2011.04.005. S2CID 27878657.
  91. ^ Newman, Daniel (23 June 2015). "Love It Or Hate It: Influencer Marketing Works". Forbes. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
  92. ^ Dunkley, Lydia (7 February 2017). "Reaching Generation Z: Harnessing the Power of Digital Influencers in Film Publicity". Journal of Promotional Communications. 5 (1). Retrieved 11 November 2017.
  93. ^ "FTC Releases Advertising Disclosures Guidance for Online Influencers". Federal Trade Commission. 5 November 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
  94. ^ Shu-Chuan, Chu (2011). "Viral Advertising in Social Media Participation in Facebook Groups and Responses among College-Aged Users". Journal of Interactive Advertising. 12 (1): 32. doi:10.1080/15252019.2011.10722189. S2CID 4336043. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
  95. ^ Hardy, Kevin (18 June 2018). "Wendy's Roasts its Way to Social Media Stardom". qsrmagazine.com. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
  96. ^ "Explore the Best Wendysmascot Art". DeviantArt. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
  97. ^ Linnea, Laestadius; Wahl, Megan; Pokhrel, Pallav; Cho, Young (2019). "From Apple to Werewolf: A content analysis of marketing for e-liquids on Instagram". Addictive Behaviors. 91: 119–127. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.09.008. PMC 6358470. PMID 30253933.
  98. ^ Wang, Xia; Yu, Chunling; Wei, Yujie (November 2012). "Social Media Peer Communication and Impacts on Purchase Intentions: A Consumer Socialization Framework" (PDF). Journal of Interactive Marketing. 26 (4): 198–208. doi:10.1016/j.intmar.2011.11.004. S2CID 167862356. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 December 2017.
  99. ^ Rainie, Lee; Wellman, Barry (27 April 2012). "The Internet Revolution". Networked: The New Social Operating System. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press (published 2012). p. 71. ISBN 978-0-262-30040-7. Retrieved 10 January 2021. [...] Witt soon became an active content creator with no intermediary needed. He started blogging in 2003 [...].
  100. ^ Leyva, Rodolfo (August 2017). "Exploring UK Millennials' Social Media Consumption Patterns and Participation in Elections, Activism, and "Slacktivism"". Social Science Computer Review. 35 (4): 462–479. doi:10.1177/0894439316655738. S2CID 62913580.
  101. ^ a b Dounoucos, Victoria A.; Hillygus, D. Sunshine; Carlson, Caroline (2019). "The Message and the Medium: An Experimental Evaluation of the Effects of Twitter Commentary on Campaign Messages". Journal of Information Technology and Politics. 16 (1): 66–76. doi:10.1080/19331681.2019.1572566. S2CID 150478043.
  102. ^ Richardson, Glenn W. Jr. (21 November 2016). Social Media and Politics: A New Way to Participate in the Political Process. Vol. 1. Praeger.
  103. ^ Barisione, Mauro; Michailidou, Asimina (2017). "Do We Need to Rethink EU Politics in the Social Media Era? An Introduction to the Volume". Social Media and European Politics. Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology. Palgrave: 1–23. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-59890-5_1. ISBN 978-1-137-59889-9.
  104. ^ Pragmatic Grizzly [@sidowen5] (14 October 2020). "Twitter trend in #SaudiArabia saw thousands of tweets on #HillaryEmails from supporters of Crown Prince MBS. Strange that Riyadh's social marketing firm, SMAAT is involved in another such campaign. Didn't see this coming from any country other than Russia. https://t.co/FASoLPXN1r" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 14 May 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2022 – via Twitter.
  105. ^ Paul, Katie (20 December 2019). "Twitter suspends accounts linked to Saudi spying case". Reuters. Retrieved 20 October 2019.
  106. ^ Anderson, Nate; Technica, Ars (14 January 2011). "Tweeting Tyrants Out of Tunisia: Global Internet at Its Best". Wired.
  107. ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (9 February 2011). "Wired and Shrewd, Young Egyptians Guide Revolt". The New York Times.
  108. ^ Howard, Philip N. (23 February 2011). "The Arab Uprising's Cascading Effects". Miller-mccune.com. Archived from the original on 27 February 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
  109. ^ Rainie & Wellman 2012, p. 207:Social media - Facebook, Twitter, and email - plus mobile phones played a major part in the 'Arab Spring' of protests and rebellions against authoritarian regimes in the Middle East and North Africa throughout 2011. The activity of networked individuals in Tunisia, Egypt, and other states was a prime example of how online content creation and community building, in tandem with offline gatherings and backstage maneuvering, can aid mass mobilizations.
  110. ^ Gladwell, Malcolm (1 March 2011). "Malcolm Gladwell and Clay Shirky on Social Media and Revolution, Foreign Affairs March/April 2011". Foreign Affairs. 90 (March/April 2011). Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
  111. ^ Minoff, Aaron (13 May 2021). "Bahrain's Social Media Problem: The Government's Online to Real Life Attack on Human Rights". New York Center For Foreign Policy Affairs. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
  112. ^ Shirky, Clay (2011). "Technology, the Public Sphere, and Political Change". Foreign Affairs. 90 (1). Retrieved 4 August 2018.
  113. ^ P.W. Singer and Emerson T. Brooking. Like War: The Weaponization of Social Media. Houghton Mifflin, NY, 2018.
  114. ^ Ajbaili, Mustapha (24 June 2014). "How ISIS conquered social media". Al Arabiya News. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  115. ^ Aichner, T.; Grünfelder, M.; Maurer, O.; Jegeni, D. (2021). "Twenty-Five Years of Social Media: A Review of Social Media Applications and Definitions from 1994 to 2019". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. doi:10.1089/cyber.2020.0134. PMC 8064945.
  116. ^ Burke, Elaine (30 May 2013). "1 in 10 young people losing out on jobs because of pics and comments on social media". Silicon Republic. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  117. ^ Guillory, J.; Hancock, J. T. (2012). "The effect of Linkedin on deception in resumes". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 15 (3): 135–140. doi:10.1089/cyber.2011.0389. PMID 22335544. S2CID 6664780.
  118. ^ "Social media for scientists". Nature Cell Biology. 20 (12): 1329. 2018. doi:10.1038/s41556-018-0253-6. PMID 30482942. S2CID 53744344.
  119. ^ Liang, Xuan; Su, Leona Yi-Fan; Yeo, Sara K.; Scheufele, Dietram A.; Brossard, Dominique; Xenos, Michael; Nealey, Paul; Corley, Elizabeth A. (12 September 2014). "Building Buzz: (Scientists) Communicating Science in New Media Environments". Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly. 91 (4): 772–791. doi:10.1177/1077699014550092. S2CID 56369654.
  120. ^ National Academies Of Sciences, Engineering; Division of Behavioral Social Sciences Education; Committee on the Science of Science Communication: A Research Agenda (2017). Communicating Science Effectively. doi:10.17226/23674. ISBN 978-0-309-45102-4. PMID 28406600.
  121. ^ Schäfer, Mike S. (13 September 2012). "Online communication on climate change and climate politics: a literature review". WIREs Climate Change. 3 (6): 527–543. Bibcode:2012WIRCC...3..527S. doi:10.1002/wcc.191. S2CID 53320112.
  122. ^ Haustein, Stefanie (2016). "Grand challenges in altmetrics: Heterogeneity, data quality and dependencies". Scientometrics. 108: 413–423. arXiv:1603.04939. Bibcode:2016arXiv160304939H. doi:10.1007/s11192-016-1910-9. S2CID 2169363.
  123. ^ Yang, Y; Lin, N; Batcheller, Q; Zhou, Q; Anderson, J; An, R (6 October 2023). "Sentiment Analysis of Tweets on Menu Labeling Regulations in the US". Nutrients. 15 (19): 4269. doi:10.3390/nu15194269. PMC 10574510. PMID 37836553.
  124. ^ Howard, C; McIntire, R; Anderson, JM; Stewart, C; McIntosh, H; Cornwell, J; Barron, K (18 September 2023). "The top sports medicine influencers on X (formerly Twitter)". Journal of Sports Sciences: 1–6. doi:10.1080/02640414.2023.2259723. PMID 37722817. S2CID 262055851.
  125. ^ Mondal, H; Parvanov, ED; Singla, RK; Rayan, RA; Nawaz, FA; Ritschl, V; Eibensteiner, F; Siva Sai, C; Cenanovic, M; Devkota, HP; Hribersek, M; De, R; Klager, E; Kletecka-Pulker, M; Völkl-Kernstock, S; Khalid, GM; Lordan, R; Găman, MA; Shen, B; Stamm, T; Willschke, H; Atanasov, AG (2022). "Twitter-based crowdsourcing: What kind of measures can help to end the COVID-19 pandemic faster?". Frontiers in Medicine. 9: 961360. doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.961360. PMC 9523003. PMID 36186802.
  126. ^ Chauhan, P.; Sharna, N.; Sikka, G. (6 August 2020). "The emergence of social media data and sentiment analysis in election prediction". Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing. 12 (2): 2601–2627. doi:10.1007/s12652-020-02423-y.
  127. ^ Franch, F. (26 February 2013). "(Wisdom of the Crowds)^2: 2010 UK election prediction with social media". Journal of Information Technology & Politics. 10 (1): 57–71. doi:10.1080/19331681.2012.705080. ISSN 1933-169X.
  128. ^ "ACLU-MN Files Lawsuit Against Minnewaska Area Schools". ACLU Minnesota. 6 March 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  129. ^ "Employers, Schools, and Social Networking Privacy". American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
  130. ^ "Kaplan Test Prep Survey: More College Admissions Officers Checking Applicants' Digital Trails, But Most Students Unconcerned". Kaplan Test. 31 October 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  131. ^ LoMonte, Frank (13 December 2021). "The First Amendment, Social Media and College Admissions". Inside Higher Ed.
  132. ^ a b c "5 Court Cases Where Social Media Played a Part". Blog Herald. 24 August 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  133. ^ a b c Raymer, Elizabeth (24 September 2018). "The (social media) evidence is clear". www.canadianlawyermag.com. Canadian Lawyer. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  134. ^ Walker, Mason; Matsa, Katerina Eva (20 September 2021). "News Consumption Across Social Media in 2021". Pew Research Center's Journalism Project. Retrieved 3 November 2021.
  135. ^ a b Obar, Jonathan A.; Wildman, Steve (2015). "Social media definition and the governance challenge: An introduction to the special issue". Telecommunications Policy. 39 (9): 745–750. doi:10.1016/j.telpol.2015.07.014. SSRN 2647377.
  136. ^ Kaplan Andreas M.; Haenlein Michael (2010). "Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media" (PDF). Business Horizons. 53 (1): 61. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2009.09.003. S2CID 16741539. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 November 2011. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
  137. ^ Kietzmann, Jan H.; Kristopher Hermkens (2011). "Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media". Business Horizons (Submitted manuscript). 54 (3): 241–251. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2011.01.005. S2CID 51682132.
  138. ^ Anderson, Monica; Caumont, Andrea (2014). "How social media is reshaping news". Pew Research Center.
  139. ^ Shearer, Elisa; Grieco, Elizabeth (2 October 2019). "Americans Are Wary of the Role Social Media Sites Play in Delivering the News". Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  140. ^ Hemsley, Jeff; Jacobson, Jenna; Gruzd, Anatoliy; Mai, Philip (July 2018). "Social Media for Social Good or Evil: An Introduction". Social Media + Society. 4 (3): 205630511878671. doi:10.1177/2056305118786719. ISSN 2056-3051.
  141. ^ a b Aichner, T.; Grünfelder, M.; Maurer, O.; Jegeni, D. (2021). "Twenty-Five Years of Social Media: A Review of Social Media Applications and Definitions from 1994 to 2019". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 24 (4): 215–222. doi:10.1089/cyber.2020.0134. PMC 8064945. PMID 33847527.
  142. ^ Wang, Z.; Tchernev, J. M.; Solloway, T. (2012). "A dynamic longitudinal examination of social media use, needs, and gratifications among college students". Computers in Human Behavior. 28 (5): 1829–1839. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.05.001. S2CID 639979.
  143. ^ Morahan-Martin, J.; Schumacher, P. (2003). "Loneliness and social uses of the internet". Computers in Human Behavior. 19 (6): 659–671. doi:10.1016/S0747-5632(03)00040-2. S2CID 16933593.
  144. ^ a b c d Rideout, Vicky; Robb, Michael B. (2018). "Social Media, Social Life: Teens Reveal Their Experiences, 2018". Common Sense Media.
  145. ^ Ritter, Zacc (21 May 2020). "Americans Use Social Media for COVID-19 Info, Connection". Gallup.
  146. ^ a b Turkle, S. (2012). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. New York, NY: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-03146-7.
  147. ^ Robb, Michael B.; Bay, Willow; Vennegaard, Tina (1 October 2019). "The New Normal: Parents, Teens, and Mobile Devices in Mexico". Common Sense Media.
  148. ^ Burke, Moira; Kraut, Robert; Marlow, Cameron (2011). "Social capital on facebook". Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (PDF). Vol. 7–9. pp. 571–580. doi:10.1145/1978942.1979023. ISBN 978-1-4503-0228-9. S2CID 8060040. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 November 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
  149. ^ Walker, Leslie (23 October 2016). "The Ins and Outs of Facebook Creeping". www.lifewire.com. Lifewire. Retrieved 12 November 2018.
  150. ^ Fox, Jesse (26 February 2014). "Why Exes Aren't So "Ex" Anymore". www.psychologytoday.com. Psychology Today. Retrieved 12 November 2018.
  151. ^ McCormack, Steven; Ortiz, Joseph (2017). Choices & Connections (second ed.).
  152. ^ Goffman, Erving (1971). The presentation of self in everyday life. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-021350-3. OCLC 3091353.
  153. ^ "Children, Teens, Media, and Body Image". Common Sense Media. Archived from the original on 2 June 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
  154. ^ van der Nagel, Emily (2 September 2017). "From usernames to profiles: the development of pseudonymity in Internet communication". Internet Histories. 1 (4): 312–331. doi:10.1080/24701475.2017.1389548. ISSN 2470-1475. S2CID 218589874.
  155. ^ a b c Chua, Trudy Hui Hui; Chang, Leanne (2016). "Follow me and like my beautiful selfies: Singapore teenage girls' engagement in self-presentation and peer comparison on social media". Computers in Human Behavior. 55: 190–7. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.09.011. S2CID 17487816.
  156. ^ Chen, Gina Masullo (2015). "Losing Face on Social Media". Communication Research. 42 (6): 819–38. doi:10.1177/0093650213510937. S2CID 28015890.
  157. ^ Kowalski, Robin M.; Limber, Susan P.; Agatston, Patricia W. (2012). Cyberbullying: Bullying in the Digital Age. Wiley-Blackwell.
  158. ^ Sherman, Lauren E.; Payton, Ashley A.; Hernandez, Leanna M.; Greenfield, Patricia M.; Dapretto, Mirella (July 2016). "The Power of the Like in Adolescence: Effects of Peer Influence on Neural and Behavioral Responses to Social Media". Psychological Science. 27 (7): 1027–1035. doi:10.1177/0956797616645673. ISSN 0956-7976. PMC 5387999. PMID 27247125.
  159. ^ Holland, G.; Tiggerman, M. (2016). "A systematic review of the impact of the use of social networking sites on body image and disordered eating outcomes". Body Image. 17: 101–109. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.02.008. PMID 26995158.
  160. ^ Lewallen, Jennifer; Behm-Morawitz, Elizabeth (30 March 2016). "Pinterest or Thinterest?: Social Comparison and Body Image on Social Media". Social Media + Society. 2 (1): 205630511664055. doi:10.1177/2056305116640559.
  161. ^ Hawi, N.S.; Samaha, M. (2017). "The Relations Among Social Media Addiction, Self-Esteem, and Life Satisfaction in University Students". Social Science Computer Review. 35 (5): 576–586. doi:10.1177/0894439316660340. S2CID 64367207.
  162. ^ Stefanone, M.A.; Lackaff, D.; Rosen, D. (2011). "Contingencies of Self-Worth and Social-Networking-Site Behavior" (PDF). Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 14 (1–2): 41–9. doi:10.1089/cyber.2010.0049. hdl:2152/41152. PMID 21329442. S2CID 8585314.
  163. ^ Criddle, Cristina (27 January 2021). "Social media damages teenagers' mental health, report says". BBC News. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  164. ^ Blackford, Meghan. "#bodypositive: A Look at Body Image & Social Media". FHE Health. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  165. ^ "Link between social media and body image". FHE Health. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  166. ^ Tiggemann, Marika; Anderberg, Isabella (16 November 2019). "Social media is not real: The effect of 'Instagram vs reality' images on women's social comparison and body image". New Media & Society. 22 (12): 2183–2199. doi:10.1177/1461444819888720. S2CID 210505708.[page needed]
  167. ^ Patton, George C.; Sawyer, Susan M.; Santelli, John S.; Ross, David A.; Afifi, Rima; Allen, Nicholas B.; Arora, Monika; Azzopardi, Peter; Baldwin, Wendy (June 2016). "Our future: a Lancet commission on adolescent health and wellbeing". The Lancet. 387 (10036): 2423–2478. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)00579-1. ISSN 0140-6736. PMC 5832967. PMID 27174304.
  168. ^ Holmberg, Christopher; Berg, Christina; Dahlgren, Jovanna; Lissner, Lauren; Chaplin, John Eric (2018). "Health literacy in a complex digital media landscape: Pediatric obesity patients' experiences with online weight, food, and health information". Health Informatics Journal. 25 (4): 1343–1357. doi:10.1177/1460458218759699. PMID 29499615. S2CID 3687773.
  169. ^ a b c "media and eating disorders". National Eating Disorder Association. 5 October 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  170. ^ Holmberg, Christopher; Berg, Christina; Hillman, Thomas; Lissner, Lauren; Chaplin, John (2018). "Self-presentation in digital media among adolescent patients with obesity: Striving for integrity, risk-reduction, and social recognition". Digit Health. 4. doi:10.1177/2055207618807603. PMC 6195003. PMID 30349733.
  171. ^ Manheim, David; Gesser-Edelsburg, Anat (2018). "The Structure of Tweets about Vaccine Safety Between Health Organizations, Experts and the Public: Analyzing Risk Communication Conversations". Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness. 25 (4): 1343–1357. doi:10.1017/dmp.2020.404. PMC 7943953. PMID 33089770.
  172. ^ Wilson, Jenny; Peebles, Rebecka; Hardy, KK; Litt, IF; Wilson, J L (December 2006). "Surfing for thinness: A pilot study of pro-eating disorder web site usage in adolescents with eating disorders". Pediatrics. 118 (6): e1635–e1643. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1133. PMID 17142493. S2CID 22277352.
  173. ^ Ransom, Danielle C; La Guardia, Jennifer G; Woody, Erik Z; Boyd, Jennifer L (2010). "Interpersonal interactions on online forums addressing eating concerns". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 43 (2): 161–170. doi:10.1002/eat.20629. PMID 19308991. S2CID 31581815.
  174. ^ "Eating Disorders and the Internet". National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders. Archived from the original on 19 October 2010. Retrieved 7 September 2010.
  175. ^ Rocha, Yasmim Mendes; de Moura, Gabriel Acácio; Desidério, Gabriel Alves; de Oliveira, Carlos Henrique; Lourenço, Francisco Dantas; de Figueiredo Nicolete, Larissa Deadame (2023). "The impact of fake news on social media and its influence on health during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review". Journal of Public Health. 31 (7): 1007–1016. doi:10.1007/s10389-021-01658-z. ISSN 2198-1833. PMC 8502082. PMID 34660175.
  176. ^ Oremus, Will (9 October 2022). "How social media 'censorship' became a front line in the culture war". Washington Post. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
  177. ^ Chen, Xi; Zhang, Stephen X.; Jahanshahi, Asghar Afshar; Alvarez-Risco, Aldo; Dai, Huiyang; Li, Jizhen; García Ibarra, Verónica (2020). "Belief in a COVID-19 Conspiracy Theory as a Predictor of Mental Health and Well-Being of Health Care Workers in Ecuador: Cross-Sectional Survey Study". JMIR Public Health and Surveillance. 6 (3): e20737. doi:10.2196/20737. PMC 7375774. PMID 32658859.
  178. ^ Zhang, Stephen X.; Graf-Vlachy, Lorenz; Kim, Hoe Looi; Su, Rui; Li, Jizhen (2020). "Social media use as a predictor of handwashing during a pandemic: evidence from COVID-19 in Malaysia". Epidemiology and Infection. 148: e261. doi:10.1017/S0950268820002575. PMC 7653491. PMID 33092675.
  179. ^ Chanjuan, Zhou; Jiaju, Zhong; Bin, Zou; Liang, Fang; Jianjun, Chen; Xiao, Deng; Lin, Zhang; Xiang, Zhao; Zehui, Qu; Yang, Lei; Ting, Lei (2017). "Meta-analyses of comparative efficacy of antidepressant medications on peripheral BDNF concentration in patients with depression". PLOS ONE. 12 (2): e0172270. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1272270Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0172270. PMC 5328267. PMID 28241064.
  180. ^ Smith, Peter K.; Mahdavi, Jess; Carvalho, Manuel; Fisher, Sonja; Russell, Shanette; Tippett, Neil (2008). "Cyberbullying: its nature and impact in secondary school pupils". The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 49 (4): 376–385. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x. PMID 18363945.
  181. ^ "Cyber Bullying Statistics". Bullying Statistics. 7 July 2015. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  182. ^ Peebles, E (2014). "Cyberbullying: Hiding behind the screen". Paediatrics & Child Health. 19 (10): 527–528. doi:10.1093/pch/19.10.527. PMC 4276384. PMID 25587229.
  183. ^ Brown, Jessica. "Is social media bad for you? The evidence and the unknowns". BBC. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
  184. ^ a b Levenson, Jessica; Shensa, Ariel; Sidani, Jaime E.; Colditz, Jason B.; Primack, Brian A. (April 2016). "The association between social media use and sleep disturbance among young adults". Preventative Meditation. 85: 36–41. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.01.001. PMC 4857587. PMID 26791323.
  185. ^ Levenson, Jessica C.; Shensa, Ariel; Sidani, Jaime E.; Colditz, Jason B.; Primack, Brian A. (April 2016). "The Association Between Social Media Use and Sleep Disturbance Among Young Adults". Preventive Medicine. 85: 36–41. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.01.001. PMC 4857587. PMID 26791323.
  186. ^ Ritcher, Ruthann (October 2015). "Among teens, sleep deprivation an epidemic". News Center. Stanford School of Medicine. Retrieved 14 November 2020.
  187. ^ Junco, Reynol (September 2011). "Too Much Face and Not Enough Books". Computers in Human Behavior. 28: 187–198. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.08.026. S2CID 17799159.
  188. ^ Seymour (2021). Successes and setbacks of social media: impact on academic life. Wiley Blackwell. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-119-69523-3.
  189. ^ Bányai, Fanni; Zsila, Ágnes; Király, Orsolya; Maraz, Aniko; Elekes, Zsuzsanna; Griffiths, Mark D.; Andreassen, Cecilie Schou; Demetrovics, Zsolt (9 January 2017). "Problematic Social Media Use: Results from a Large-Scale Nationally Representative Adolescent Sample". PLOS ONE. 12 (1): e0169839. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1269839B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0169839. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 5222338. PMID 28068404.
  190. ^ Han, Bo (2018). "Social Media Burnout: Definition, Measurement Instrument, and Why We Care". Journal of Computer Information Systems. 58 (2): 1–9. doi:10.1080/08874417.2016.1208064. S2CID 67791822.
  191. ^ a b Przybylski, Andrew K.; Murayama, Kou; DeHaan, Cody R.; Gladwell, Valerie (2013). "Motivational, emotional, and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out". Computers in Human Behavior. 29 (4): 1841–1848. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014. S2CID 12602767.
  192. ^ Fuller, Maren Y.; Allen, Timothy Craig (1 September 2016). "Let's Have a Tweetup: The Case for Using Twitter Professionally". Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine. 140 (9): 956–957. doi:10.5858/arpa.2016-0172-SA. ISSN 1543-2165. PMID 27195434.
  193. ^ Liu, Lisa; Woo, Benjamin K P (19 January 2021). "Twitter as a Mental Health Support System for Students and Professionals in the Medical Field". JMIR Medical Education. 7 (1): e17598. doi:10.2196/17598. ISSN 2369-3762. PMC 7854042. PMID 33464210.
  194. ^ Cotten, Shelia R.; Schuster, Amy M.; Seifert, Alexander (1 June 2022). "Social media use and well-being among older adults". Current Opinion in Psychology. 45: 101293. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.12.005. ISSN 2352-250X. PMID 35065352. S2CID 245302663.
  195. ^ a b Naughton, John (25 June 2018). "Anti-Social Media: How Facebook Disconnects Us and Undermines Democracy by Siva Vaidhyanathan – review". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  196. ^ Kaufmann, Bruno; Glatthard, Jonas (7 May 2021). "'Humour over rumour': lessons from Taiwan in digital democracy". SwissInfo. Retrieved 25 July 2024.
  197. ^ a b Ragnedda, Massimo; Muschert, Glenn W, eds. (2013). The Digital Divide. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203069769. ISBN 978-0-203-06976-9.
  198. ^ Zhou, Wei-Xing; Leidig, Mathias; Teeuw, Richard M. (2015). "Quantifying and Mapping Global Data Poverty". PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0142076. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1042076L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142076. PMC 4641581. PMID 26560884.
  199. ^ Park, Sora (2017). Digital capital. London: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-1-137-59332-0. OCLC 1012343673.
  200. ^ Graham, M. (July 2011). "Time machines and virtual portals: The spatialities of the digital divide". Progress in Development Studies. 11 (3): 211–227. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.659.9379. doi:10.1177/146499341001100303. S2CID 17281619.
  201. ^ Reilley, Collen A. (January 2011). "Teaching Wikipedia as a Mirrored Technology". First Monday. 16 (1–3). doi:10.5210/fm.v16i1.2824.
  202. ^ Reinhart, Julie M.; Thomas, Earl; Toriskie, Jeanne M. (2011). "K-12 Teachers: Technology Use and the Second Level Digital Divide". Journal of Instructional Psychology. 38 (3): 181–193. ISSN 0094-1956.
  203. ^ Kontos, Emily Z.; Emmons, Karen M.; Puleo, Elaine; Viswanath, K. (2010). "Communication Inequalities and Public Health Implications of Adult Social Networking Site Use in the United States". Journal of Health Communication. 15 (Suppl 3): 216–235. doi:10.1080/10810730.2010.522689. PMC 3073379. PMID 21154095.
  204. ^ "Facebook Disputes Claims It Fuels Political Polarization And Extremism". NPR. 1 April 2021.
  205. ^ "New study shows just how Facebook's algorithm shapes conservative and liberal bubbles". NPR. 27 July 2023. Still, the research sheds light on how Facebook's algorithm works. The studies found liberals and conservatives live in their own political news bubbles more so than elsewhere online. They also show that changing the platform's algorithm substantially changes what people see and how they behave on the site — even if it didn't affect their beliefs during the three-month period researchers studied...'This is interesting, strong evidence that when it comes to politics, the algorithm is biased towards the extremes,' Edelson said. 'This is genuinely new.'
  206. ^ a b c Molla, Rani (10 November 2020). "Social media is making a bad political situation worse". Vox. Retrieved 15 July 2024.
  207. ^ Ingram, Mathew (9 June 2022). "Have the dangers of social media been overstated?". Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  208. ^ Lewis-Kraus, Gideon (3 June 2022). "How Harmful Is Social Media?". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  209. ^ a b Ovadya, Aviv (17 May 2022). "Bridging-Based Ranking". Belfer Center at Harvard University. pp. 3, 10–13. Retrieved 17 July 2024. Chronological feeds are just 'recency-biased ranking' systems with their own problems...'Choose your own ranking systems' are not quite good enough
  210. ^ Ovadya, Aviv (17 May 2022). "Bridging-Based Ranking". Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at Harvard University. pp. 21–23, 28. Retrieved 17 July 2024.
  211. ^ Merrill, Jeremy B.; Oremus, Will (26 October 2021). "Five points for anger, one for a 'like': How Facebook's formula fostered rage and misinformation". Washington Post.
  212. ^ Klepper, David (27 July 2023). "Deep dive into Meta's algorithms shows that America's political polarization has no easy fix". AP News. Retrieved 15 July 2024. When they replaced the algorithm with a simple chronological listing of posts from friends — an option Facebook recently made available to users — it had no measurable impact on polarization...Likewise, reducing the content that Facebook users get from accounts with the same ideological alignment had no significant effect on polarization, susceptibility to misinformation or extremist views.
  213. ^ Volfovsky, Alexander; Merhout, Friedolin; Mann, Marcus; Lee, Jaemin; Hunzaker, M. B. Fallin; Chen, Haohan; Bumpus, John P.; Brown, Taylor W.; Argyle, Lisa P. (11 September 2018). "Exposure to opposing views on social media can increase political polarization". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (37): 9216–9221. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.9216B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1804840115. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 6140520. PMID 30154168.
  214. ^ Mihailidis, Paul; Viotty, Samantha (27 March 2017). "Spreadable Spectacle in Digital Culture: Civic Expression, Fake News, and the Role of Media Literacies in "Post-Fact" Society". American Behavioral Scientist. 61 (4): 441–454. doi:10.1177/0002764217701217. ISSN 0002-7642. S2CID 151950124.
  215. ^ "Loss of newspapers contributes to political polarization". AP News. 30 January 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2024.
  216. ^ Moore, Thomas (21 May 2021). "Study: Decline in local journalism increases political polarization". The Hill.
  217. ^ Dunaway, Johanna; Darr, Joshua P.; Hitt, Matthew P. (27 May 2021). "Local newspapers can help reduce polarization with opinion pages that focus on local issues". The Conversation. Retrieved 15 July 2024.
  218. ^ Díaz-Fernández, Antonio M.; del-Real-Castrillo, Cristina (1 July 2018). "Spies and security: Assessing the impact of animated videos on intelligence services in school children". Comunicar (in Spanish). 26 (56): 81–89. doi:10.3916/c56-2018-08. hdl:10272/15122. ISSN 1134-3478.
  219. ^ Knight, Rod; Jauffret-Roustide, Marie; Bolduc, Naseeb; Coulard, Pierre-julien (3 December 2020). "Young adults, unfairly blamed for COVID-19 spread, now face stress and uncertain futures - Beyond". beyond.ubc.ca. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
  220. ^ Ng, Reuben (21 August 2021). "Societal Age Stereotypes in the U.S. and U.K. from a Media Database of 1.1 Billion Words". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (16): 8822. doi:10.3390/ijerph18168822. ISSN 1661-7827. PMC 8391425. PMID 34444578.
  221. ^ DuPraw, Marcelle E.; Axner, Marya (1997). "Working on Common Cross-cultural Communication Challenges". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  222. ^ Fians, Guilherme (2021). Esperanto Revolutionaries and Geeks. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-84230-7. ISBN 978-3-030-84229-1. S2CID 245721938.
  223. ^ Saxton, Gregory D.; Niyirora, Jerome N.; Guo, Chao; Waters, Richard D. (Spring 2015). "#AdvocatingForChange: The Strategic Use of Hashtags in Social Media Advocacy". Advances in Social Work. 16: 154–169. doi:10.18060/17952.
  224. ^ "How Using Social Media Affects Teenagers". Child Mind Institute. Retrieved 20 October 2022.
  225. ^ Anderson, Monica; Jiang, Jingjing (28 November 2018). "1. Teens and their experiences on social media". Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
  226. ^ Lalli, Jaideep Singh (5 August 2021). "Maryland's Underage Sexting Case: Punishing Revenge Porn Victims?: Case Analysis of In Re: S.K., 215 A.3d 300 (Md. 2019)". Journal of Victimology and Victim Justice. doi:10.1177/25166069211033212. ISSN 2516-6069. S2CID 241531975.
  227. ^ Osterday, Mitchell (2015–2016). "Protecting Minors from Themselves: Expanding Revenge Porn Laws to Protect the Most Vulnerable". Indiana Law Review. 49 (2): 555. doi:10.18060/4806.0075.
  228. ^ Phippen, Andy; Brennan, Maggie (7 December 2020). Sexting and Revenge Pornography: Legislative and Social Dimensions of a Modern Digital Phenomenon. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315149691. ISBN 978-1-315-14969-1. S2CID 228921617.
  229. ^ Paat, Yok-Fong; Markham, Christine (2 January 2021). "Digital crime, trauma, and abuse: Internet safety and cyber risks for adolescents and emerging adults in the 21st century". Social Work in Mental Health. 19 (1): 18–40. doi:10.1080/15332985.2020.1845281. ISSN 1533-2985. S2CID 228869238.
  230. ^ Mir, Eline; Novas, Caroline; Seymour, Meg (10 August 2018). "Social Media and Adolescents' and Young Adults' Mental Health". National Center for Health Research. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
  231. ^ Cooper, Mex (30 July 2014). "Social media users could be charged for sharing WikiLeaks story". Brisbane Times. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  232. ^ Walsh, Declan (28 July 2020). "Egypt Sentences Women to 2 Years in Prison for TikTok Videos". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2020.
  233. ^ Hatter, Lynn; Andrews, Adrian (25 March 2024). "DeSantis signs social media ban for minors, among the strictest in the nation". Health News Florida. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
  234. ^ "Ron DeSantis signs Florida social media ban for children into law". The Guardian. 26 March 2024. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
  235. ^ Schlag, Gabi (31 August 2023). "European Union's Regulating of Social Media: A Discourse Analysis of the Digital Services Act". Politics and Governance. 11 (3): 168–177, p. 168. doi:10.17645/pag.v11i3.6735. ISSN 2183-2463.
  236. ^ "The Digital Services Act package | Shaping Europe's digital future". digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu. 15 November 2023. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
  237. ^ Schlag, Gabi (31 August 2023). "European Union's Regulating of Social Media: A Discourse Analysis of the Digital Services Act". Politics and Governance. 11 (3): 168–177. doi:10.17645/pag.v11i3.6735. ISSN 2183-2463.
  238. ^ O'Carroll, Lisa (25 August 2023). "How the EU Digital Services Act affects Facebook, Google and others". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
  239. ^ a b Puig Larrauri, Helena (6 April 2023). "SOCIETAL DIVIDES AS A TAXABLE NEGATIVE EXTERNALITY OF DIGITAL PLATFORMS. An exploration of the rationale for regulating algorithmically mediated platforms differently" (PDF).
  240. ^ "What impact will the EU's Digital Services Act have? – DW – 08/25/2023". dw.com. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
  241. ^ Beckmann, Holger. "Digital Services Act: Was illegal ist, muss raus aus dem Netz". tagesschau.de (in German). Retrieved 26 November 2023.
  242. ^ Romer, Paul (6 May 2019). "Opinion | A Tax That Could Fix Big Tech". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
  243. ^ Writer, Guest (6 April 2023). "Negative Externalities of Digital Platforms Should Be Taxed Today". ICTworks. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
  244. ^ Mazúr, Ján; Patakyová, Mária T. (30 September 2019). "Regulatory Approaches to Facebook and Other Social Media Platforms: Towards Platforms Design Accountability". Masaryk University Journal of Law and Technology. 13 (2): 219–242. doi:10.5817/MUJLT2019-2-4. ISSN 1802-5951. S2CID 211391599.
  245. ^ Moreno, Megan A.; Radesky, Jenny S. (22 July 2024). "Benefits and Harms of Proposed Social Media Legislation". JAMA Pediatrics. 178 (9): 857–858. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2024.2380. ISSN 2168-6203. PMID 39037793.
  246. ^ Radesky, Jenny; Moreno, Megan (4 April 2024). "Online child safety laws could help or hurt – 2 pediatricians explain what's likely to work and what isn't". The Conversation. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
  247. ^ Murthy, Vivek H. (17 June 2024). "Opinion | Surgeon General: Why I'm Calling for a Warning Label on Social Media Platforms". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 17 June 2024.
  248. ^ L, Frank (1 March 2023). "5 Winning Social Media Business Models + Examples". getstream.io. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
  249. ^ Flanigin, Andrew J.; Metzger, Miriam (2007). "The role of site features, user attributes, and information verification behaviors on the perceived credibility of web-based information" (PDF). New Media and Society. 9 (2): 319–342. doi:10.1177/1461444807075015. S2CID 33591074. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
  250. ^ Paul, Jomon Aliyas; Baker, Hope M.; Cochran, Justin Daniel (November 2012). "Effect of online social networking on student academic performance". Computers in Human Behavior. 28 (6): 2117–2127. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.06.016.
  251. ^ Hinchiffe, Don (25 June 2013). "Are social media silos holding back business". ZDNet.com. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
  252. ^ Greene-Colozzi, Emily A.; Winters, Georgia M.; Blasko, Brandy; Jeglic, Elizabeth L. (2 October 2020). "Experiences and Perceptions of Online Sexual Solicitation and Grooming of Minors: A Retrospective Report". Journal of Child Sexual Abuse. 29 (7): 836–854. doi:10.1080/10538712.2020.1801938. ISSN 1053-8712. PMID 33017275. S2CID 222159972.
  253. ^ Henshaw, Marie; Darjee, Rajan; Clough, Jonathan A. (1 January 2020), Bryce, India; Petherick, Wayne (eds.), "Chapter Five - Online child sexual offending", Child Sexual Abuse, Academic Press, pp. 85–108, ISBN 978-0-12-819434-8, retrieved 31 December 2021
  254. ^ Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur. Random House. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-385-52081-2.
  255. ^ "Facebook starts fact-checking partnership with Reuters". Reuters. 12 February 2020. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  256. ^ Watercutter, Angela. "Two to Tango: Twitter Fact-Checks the Fact-Checkers". Wired. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  257. ^ "See fact checks in YouTube search results - YouTube Help". support.google.com. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  258. ^ Zafarani, Reza; Abbasi, Mohammad Ali; Liu, Huan (2014). "Social Media Mining: An Introduction". Retrieved 15 November 2014.
  259. ^ Leaver, Tama (May 2013). "The Social Media Contradiction: Data Mining and Digital Death". M/C Journal. 16 (2). doi:10.5204/mcj.625. hdl:20.500.11937/33046. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
  260. ^ Sumbaly, Roshan; Kreps, Jay; Shah, Sam (June 2013). "The big data ecosystem at LinkedIn". Proceedings of the 2013 international conference on Management of data - SIGMOD '13 (Report). SIGMOD '13: Proceedings of the 2013 ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data. pp. 1125–1134. doi:10.1145/2463676.2463707. ISBN 978-1-4503-2037-5.
  261. ^ Shvalb, Nir, ed. (2022). Our Western Spring: The Battle Between Technology and Democracy, Moment of Truth Kindle Edition. Amazon.
  262. ^ "Mark Zuckerberg Testimony: Senators Question Facebook's Commitment to Privacy". The New York Times. 10 April 2018. Archived from the original on 11 April 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
  263. ^ a b c Gladwell, Malcolm (4 October 2010). "Small Changes – Why the revolution will not be tweeted". The New Yorker. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
  264. ^ Kwak, Nojin; Lane, Daniel S; Weeks, Brian E; Kim, Dam Hee; Lee, Slgi S; Bachleda, Sarah (1 April 2018). "Perceptions of Social Media for Politics: Testing the Slacktivism Hypothesis". Human Communication Research. 44 (2): 197–221. doi:10.1093/hcr/hqx008. ISSN 0360-3989.
  265. ^ a b Jones, Harvey; Soltren, José Hiram (2005). "Facebook: Threats to Privacy" (PDF). MIT Computer Science & Artificial Intelligence Lab. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
  266. ^ Thompson, Cadie (20 May 2015). "What you really sign up for when you use social media". CNBC. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
  267. ^ McCullagh, Declan (17 December 2012). "Instagram says it now has the right to sell your photos". CNET. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
  268. ^ Rodriguez, Salvador (17 December 2012). "Instagram may have ads, let companies use your photos for the ads". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
  269. ^ McCullagh, Declan; Tam, Donna. "Instagram apologizes to users: We won't sell your photos". CNET. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
  270. ^ Sottek, T.C. (18 December 2012). "Instagram says 'it's not our intention to sell your photos'". The Verge. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
  271. ^ Auer, Matthew R. (2011). "The Policy Sciences of Social Media". Policy Studies Journal. 39 (4): 709–736. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0072.2011.00428.x. S2CID 153590593. SSRN 1974080.
  272. ^ Madden, Mary; Lenhart, Amanda; Cortesi, Sandra; Gasser, Urs; Duggan, Maeve; Smith, Aaron; Beaton, Meredith (21 May 2013). "Teens, Social Media, and Privacy". Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. Retrieved 29 November 2016.
  273. ^ "Social Media Privacy Issues for 2020: Threats & Risks". Tulane University. 8 November 2019. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  274. ^ Rainie, Lee (27 March 2018). "Americans' complicated feelings about social media in an era of privacy concerns". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
  275. ^ Fidler, Stephen; Wells, Georgia (17 February 2019). "U.K. Lawmakers Rebuke Facebook in Call for Social-Media Regulation". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  276. ^ "US Navy bans TikTok from mobile devices saying it's a cybersecurity threat". The Guardian. 21 December 2019. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  277. ^ "US government agencies are banning TikTok, the social media app teens are obsessed with, over cybersecurity fears — here's the full list". Business Insider. 25 February 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  278. ^ O'Brien, Matt (30 October 2020). "Judge postpones Trump's TikTok ban in suit brought by users". AP NEWS. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
  279. ^ "U.S. court to hear challenges to potential TikTok ban in September". CNBC. 28 May 2024. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
  280. ^ Tomczyk Ł, Solecki R (July 2019). "Problematic internet use and protective factors related to family and free time activities among young people". Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice. 19 (3): 1–13. doi:10.12738/estp.2019.3.001.
  281. ^ "emigration-plummets-to-lowest-figure-recorded-apr-2-1984-1-p". Human Rights Documents online. doi:10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-1326-0318. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
  282. ^ Tereshchenko S, Kasparov E, Smolnikova M, Shubina M, Gorbacheva N, Moskalenko O (October 2021). "Internet Addiction and Sleep Problems among Russian Adolescents: A Field School-Based Study". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (19): 10397. doi:10.3390/ijerph181910397. PMC 8507923. PMID 34639694.
  283. ^ Wallace P (January 2014). "Internet addiction disorder and youth: There are growing concerns about compulsive online activity and that this could impede students' performance and social lives". EMBO Reports. 15 (1): 12–6. doi:10.1002/embr.201338222. PMC 4303443. PMID 24398129.
  284. ^ "Internet Addiction | Psychology Today". www.psychologytoday.com. Retrieved 2 September 2024.
  285. ^ "Addictive behaviour". www.who.int. Retrieved 1 September 2024.
  286. ^ Anderson EL, Steen E, Stavropoulos V (2017). "Internet use and Problematic Internet Use: A systematic review of longitudinal research trends in adolescence and emergent adulthood". International Journal of Adolescence and Youth. 22 (4): 430–454. doi:10.1080/02673843.2016.1227716. S2CID 152003110.
  287. ^ Summers, Amy (2 May 2011). "Facebook Addiction Disorder — The 6 Symptoms of F.A.D." AdWeek. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
  288. ^ Brailovskaia, J.; Margraf, J. (2017). "Facebook Addiction Disorder (FAD) among German students—A longitudinal approach". PLOS ONE. 12 (12): 2423–2478. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1289719B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0189719. PMC 5730190. PMID 29240823.
  289. ^ Zhao, Nan; Zhou, Guangyu (9 February 2021). "COVID-19 Stress and Addictive Social Media Use (SMU): Mediating Role of Active Use and Social Media Flow". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 12: 635546. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.635546. PMC 7899994. PMID 33633616.
  290. ^ Watch The Social Dilemma. www.netflix.com (Film). Netflix Official Site. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
  291. ^ Kane, Suzanne (6 December 2018). "Portion-Control in Social Media? How Limiting Time Increases Well-Being". World of Psychology. Archived from the original on 14 August 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  292. ^ Pogorskiy, Eduard; Beckmann, Jens F. (2023). "From procrastination to engagement? An experimental exploration of the effects of an adaptive virtual assistant on self regulation in online learning". Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence. 4: 100111. doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100111. S2CID 254612244.
  293. ^ Kist, W. (December 2012). "Class, Get Ready to Tweet: Social Media in the Classroom". Our Children: The National PTA Magazine. Vol. 38, no. 3. pp. 10–11.
  294. ^ KATELLA, KATHY (8 January 2024). "How Social Media Affects Your Teen's Mental Health: A Parent's Guide". Yale Medicine. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
  295. ^ eSafety Commissioner (August 2023). "Inappropriate content: factsheet".
  296. ^ Associated Press (27 February 2024). "Phones are distracting students in class. More states are pressing schools to ban them". NBC News. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
  297. ^ Sarıkaya, Salih (30 October 2014). "Social Media Ban In Turkey: What Does It Mean? by Salih Sarıkaya". Archived from the original on 6 October 2014.
  298. ^ "Turkey's Twitter ban violates free speech: constitutional court". Reuters. 2 April 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  299. ^ a b c d "United States and Canada | OpenNet Initiative". opennet.net. OpenNet Initiative. 30 March 2010. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
  300. ^ Bambauer, Derek E. (2009). "Cybersieves". Duke Law Journal. 59.
  301. ^ Palfrey, Jr., John; Rogoyski, Robert (2006). "The Move to the Middle: The Enduring Threat of 'Harmful' Speech to the End-to-End Principle" (PDF). Washington University Journal of Law and Policy. 21: 31–65. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 March 2012.
  302. ^ "Unintended Consequences: Twelve Years under the DMCA". Electronic Frontier Foundation. March 2010. Archived from the original on 5 May 2011.
  303. ^ Somini Sengupta (12 July 2012). "U. S. Pursuing a Middleman in Web Piracy". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 July 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
  304. ^ "Manhattan Federal Court Orders Seizures of Seven Websites for Criminal Copyright Infringement in Connection with Distribution of Pirated Movies Over the Internet" (PDF). Press Release United States Attorney Southern District of New York. U.S. Justice Department. 10 June 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
  305. ^ Barakat, Matthew; Perry, Nick (20 January 2012). "US Internet piracy case brings New Zealand arrests". The Washington Times. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 28 April 2012. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
  306. ^ "US formally requests Dotcom's extradition". 3 News NZ. 5 March 2012. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  307. ^ Kan, Michael (11 December 2019). "Twitter Wants Social Media to Be More Like Email". PC Magazine. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  308. ^ Kang, Jay Caspian (12 May 2023). "What Bluesky Tells Us About the Future of Social Media". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
  309. ^ "The Good, The Bad, & The Semantically Imprecise - 8/10/2018". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
  310. ^ Reynolds, Glenn Harlan (18 August 2018). "When Digital Platforms Become Censors". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019.
  311. ^ Chandrasekharan, Eshwar; Pavalanathan, Umashanti; Srinivasan, Anirudh; Glynn, Adam; Eisenstein, Jacob; Gilber, Eric (November 2017). "You Can't Stay Here: The Efficacy of Reddit's 2015 Ban Examined Through Hate Speech". Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction. 1 (CSCW): Article 31. doi:10.1145/3134666. S2CID 22713682.
  312. ^ Allyn, Bobby; Keith, Tamara (8 January 2020). "Twitter Permanently Suspends Trump, Citing 'Risk Of Further Incitement Of Violence'". NPR.
  313. ^ Gal, Uri (26 January 2024). "Opinion: Anti-social media: What can be done to stop platforms from driving democracies apart?". ABC Religion & Ethics. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  314. ^ Beauchamp, Zack (22 January 2019). "Social media is rotting democracy from within". Vox. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  315. ^ "Once considered a boon to democracy, social media have started to look like its nemesis". The Economist. 4 November 2017. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 15 July 2024.
  316. ^ Deb, Anamitra; Donohue, Stacy; Glaisyer, Tom (31 October 2017). "Is Social Media a Threat to Democracy?". Global Investigative Journalism Network. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  317. ^ "'#Republic' Author Describes How Social Media Hurts Democracy". NPR. 20 February 2017.
  318. ^ Hull, Gordon (6 November 2017). "Why social media may not be so good for democracy". The Conversation. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  319. ^ "What's driving America's partisan divide and what might be done to reverse it". PBS News. 31 May 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  320. ^ Goo, Sara Kehaulani (28 June 2022). "Nobelist Maria Ressa: Social media is corroding U.S. democracy". Axios.
  321. ^ Leonard, Andrew (30 July 2020). "How Taiwan's Unlikely Digital Minister Hacked the Pandemic". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  322. ^ Miller, Carl (27 September 2020). "How Taiwan's 'civic hackers' helped find a new way to run the country". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  323. ^ LikeWar: The Weaponization of Social Media (2018) by P.W. Singer and Emerson T. Brooking
  324. ^ Giangreco, Leigh (29 November 2018). "How Trump, ISIS and Russia have mastered the Internet as a weapon". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  325. ^ Awan, Imran (1 April 2017). "Cyber-Extremism: Isis and the Power of Social Media". Society. 54 (2): 138–149. doi:10.1007/s12115-017-0114-0. ISSN 1936-4725. S2CID 54069174.
  326. ^ Romero, Laura (12 January 2021). "Experts say echo chambers from apps like Parler and Gab contributed to attack on Capitol". ABC News. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  327. ^ Murdock, Jason (13 January 2021). "Amazon shut down Parler after users called for politicians, police to be killed: Lawsuit". Newsweek. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  328. ^ "What happens to social media after you die". NewsComAu. 30 December 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
  329. ^ a b "Social Media Accounts After a Loved One Dies". Beyond. 8 March 2017. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
  330. ^ "How to contact Twitter about a deceased family member's account". help.twitter.com. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
  331. ^ "Instagram Help Center". help.instagram.com. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  332. ^ "Deceased LinkedIn Member". LinkedIn Help. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  333. ^ "Submit a request regarding a deceased user's account". google.account.help.com.

Further reading

edit
  • Aral, Sinan (2020). The Hype Machine: How Social Media Disrupts Our Elections, Our Economy, and Our Health—and How We Must Adapt. Currency. ISBN 978-0-525-57451-4.
  • Fuchs, Christian (2014). Social Media: A Critical Introduction. London: Sage. ISBN 978-1-4462-5731-9.
edit
  •   Media related to Social media at Wikimedia Commons